A third general and a third army were sent by Austria into Italy in the autumn of the same year. Marshal A.vinzi advanced from Carinthia by the way of Belluno with 30,000 men, while General Davidowich, with 20,000, descended from Tyrol by the valley of the Adigé. After several conflicts, in which they were on the whole successful, and by which Bonaparte was placed in a critical position, Bonaparte attacked them and won the battle of Arcola on the 15th of November, 1796, and two following Gays, the hardest fought battle of any in the Italian campaus. Alvinzi was compelled to retire to Vicenza and bassano, and thus ended the third campaign of 1796. Bonaparte now allowed Modena, Reggio, Bologna, and Ferrara to form themselves into a republic, which was called Cispadana. He had repaired to Bologna in January, 1797, to threaten the Roman states, when he heard fat Alvinzi, with 50,000 men, was moving down from Tyrol along the right bank of the Adigé upon Rivoli, where Jobert was posted. On the 13th of January Bonaparte hurried from Verona with Massena's division to Rivoli, and the 14th won the battle of Rivoli. Another Austrian Gaston under General Provera had meantime forced the passage of the Adigé near Legnano, and arrived outside of Mata, when Provera attacked the entrenchments of the besiegers, while Würmser made a sortie with part of the camison. Bonaparte arrived just in time to prevent the azetion of Provera and Würmser. Soon afterwards, the garrison having exhausted their last supply of horsefesh, and being much reduced by disease, Würmser offered to capitulate. Bonaparte granted him honourable conditits, and behaved to the old marshal with the consideration te to his age and bravery. Bonaparte was now secure from the Austrians in the arth, and turned anew against the Pope, who had refused Le beavy terms imposed upon him by the Directory, and after paying 5,000,000 livres, had refused to remit further. Baparte occupied Ancona and the Marches almost withat resistance, and advanced to Tolentino, where he received cuties from Pius IV., who sued for peace. The conons dictated were 15,000,000 more livres, part in cash. part in diamonds, within one month, and as many Again within two months, besides horses, cattle, &c., the cession of Bologna, Ferrara, the Romagna, and Avignon (papal city in France), and the possession of the town of Ancona till the general peace, together with an additional Bamber of paintings, statues, and MSS. On these terms the Pope was allowed to remain at Rome a little longer. The Directory wished to remove him altogether, but Bonaparte regarded, as usual, anything but his own policy. He calated, in his cynical way, the importance of religious ence over nations, and treated the Pope's legate with a courtesy most repugnant to his freethinking comrades. The foundations of the future Concordat were laid. Austria had meantime assembled a new army on the Puters of Italy under the Archduke Charles. Bonaparte attacked the archduke on the river Tagliamento, the pass if which he forced (16th March). The archduke made a stat resistance at Tarvis, where he fought in person, but Was at last obliged to retire. Bonaparte continued to Lee towards Vienna without any regular engagement at Judenburg in Upper Styria, about eight days' march from Vienna, his oft-repeated offers of peace took effect; Aid Generals Bellegarde and Meerfeldt arrived from Vienna to arrange preliminaries, which were signed at Leoben by Baparte, 18th April, 1797. Of the conditions of this ↑ Lvention some articles only were made known at the time. Le secret articles were, that Austria should have a comperation for the above losses out of the territory of the huic of Venice. Bonaparte had prepared for this, though France was nominally not only at peace, but actually in Aance with Venice. To cause a rupture he had seized en the castles of Bergamo, Brescia, Verona, and other NAPOLEON I. | fortified places of the Venetian states; he made the country support his army, and he favoured the disaffected against the senate. At last, as Bonaparte had planned, an insurrection broke out in Verona, April, 1797, whereupon he insisted upon a total change in the Venetian government, and, French troops being surreptitiously introduced into Venice, the Doge and all authorities resigned. A provisional government was formed, but Bonaparte had already betrayed Venice to Austria. By the definitive treaty of peace signed at Campo Formido, near Udine, usually called Campo Formio, 17th October, 1797, the Emperor of Austria ceded to France the Netherlands and the left bank of the Rhine, with the city of Mainz; he acknowledged the independence of the Milanese and Mantuan states under the name of the Cisalpine Republic; and he consented that the French Republic should have the Ionian Islands and the Venetian possessions in Albania. The French Republic, on its part, consented (such was the word) that the emperor should have Venice and its territory as far as the Adigé, with Istria and Dalmatia. The provinces between the Adigé and the Adda were to be incorporated with the Cisalpine Republic. The emperor was also to have an increase of territory at the expense of the Elector of Bavaria, and the Duke of Modena was to have the Brisgau. This treaty was effected by the young general, still only twenty-eight, entirely on his own responsibility, and even against the express orders of the Directory. In fact, he acted throughout just as a sovereign prince. His court at Montebello, near Milan, had every sign of royalty throughout the summer, and Josephine throned it like a very queen beside him. And yet this man had at that time commanded an army in chief for scarcely more than a twelvemonth. During the several months that the negotiations for the peace lasted, Bonaparte had time to effect other changes in Italy. He began with Genoa. After encouraging a sedition against the senate, a sum of 4,000,000 livres was exacted from the principal nobles; the French made a military occupation of the country, and placed a garrison within Genoa; and a constitution was modelled upon that then existing in France, with councils of elders and juniors, a Directory, &c. Bonaparte next consolidated the Cisalpine Republic, and gave it a constitution after the model of France. The installation of the new authorities took place at Milan on the 9th of July with great solemnity. Bonaparte appointed the members of the legislative committees, of the Directory, the ministers, the magistrates, &c. Tuscany, Parma, Rome, and Naples remained under their old princes-all, however, with the exception of Naples, in complete subjection to France. After the treaty of Campo Formio, Bonaparte was appointed minister-plenipotentiary of the French Republic at the congress of Rastatt for the settlement of the questions concerning the German Empire. He now took leave of Italy and of his fine army, which had become enthusiastically attached to him. There is no evidence of his having shown himself personally fond of money; he had exacted millions, but it was chiefly to satisfy the cravings of the Directory, and partly to support his army and to reward his friends. He once blamed Marmont as a fool for sending on money to Paris which was intrusted to him. Napoleon did not stop long at Rastatt, but proceeded to Paris, where he arrived in December, 1797. He was received with the greatest honour by the Directory. He had written from the Army of Italy to the Directory. The time is at hand when to destroy England we shall have to seize upon Egypt." With the eagle eye of genius he had perceived that the occupation of Egypt would break up the English power in India. England's enormous strides in the East set him aflame with envy. The land of romance, of barbaric splendour (and what mattered it to a Bonaparte that this splendour NAPOLEON I. of a few rested upon the grinding poverty of countless thousands), the ready acquiescence to despotism, and the absence of that inconvenient love of freedom so tiresome in the West, all beckoned this born tyrant and despot Eastwards. 442 NAPOLEON L (quite untranslatable) of the Directory will leare me here to perish," as he said to Bourrienne. He determined, therefore, to escape and leave the army to its fate. But first it was necessary to do something grandiose to take away the effect of Nelson's crushing victory of the Nile. He resolved upon a swift and brilliant campaig in Syria. In February, 1799, he crossed the desert with 10,000 men, took El Árish and Gaza, and on the 7th March be stormed Jaffa, which was bravely defended. Two days afterwards, on the 9th, the 2500 prisoners whom he took were marched out of Jaffa in the centre of a square battalion commanded by General Bon. They proceeded to the sandhills south-east of Jaffa, and being there divided into small bodies, they were, in cold blood, pat to death in masses by volleys of musketry. The bodies were heaped up in the shape of a pyramid, and their bleached bons were to be seen many years afterwards. lems?" &c. (2nd July, 1798). While Bonaparte was engaged in organizing the internal affairs of Egypt, the destruction of his fleet by Nelson took place in the roads of Aboukir (battle of the Nile) on the 1st and 2nd of August, 1798. He was now shut out from all communiIf Bonaparte was eager to rival Alexander the Great, the cation with Europe. A popular insurrection broke out at Directory were no less eager, at any cost, to get out of France Cairo on the 22nd of September, when the French found a personage who, as it were, with one wave of the hand in the streets were killed. Bonaparte, who was absent, could by his unbounded popularity backed by his consummate returned quickly with troops, and a dreadful massacre generalship send them all packing at a moment's notice, ensued, even after all resistance had been abandoned: Bonaparte kept very quiet, but he saw and made friends 5000 Moslems were killed on that day. As for the with every man of importance, and the overthrow of the French, we know their feelings, for Nelson intercepted feeble Directory was often discussed. As he said to his their correspondence. Despair was openly expressed, and private friends, "The pear is not ripe, I must wait." To the feeling of the army was so dangerous that Bonaparte mask the design which was agreed upon between the at last issued an order decreeing death to any officer who general and his servile masters, a great armament was should complain in his hearing! Many blew out their prepared nominally against England, and Bonaparte was brains, and others plunged in the Nile to end their sorrows. appointed general-in-chief of the "Army of England;" Bonaparte, too, saw that all was over, and that the but, after a rapid inspection of the French coasts and of the troops stationed near them, he returned to Paris. The money for the expedition to Egypt was procured from the unhappy Switzerland, where, upon the most absurdly flimsy of pretexts, a quarrel was sought, and no less than £1,600,000 sterling was extorted for its indemnity. Rome was also plundered in the same way by Berthier; every penny was sent to Bonaparte, and the French troops engaged in the plunder were kept so miserably that they actually revolted. Bonaparte now repaired to Toulon, whence he sailed on board the admiral's ship L'Orient on the night of the 19th May, 1798, while Nelson's blockading fleet had been forced by violent winds to remove from that coast. The land force consisted of 25,000 men, chiefly from the Army of Italy. The fleet arrived before Malta on the 9th of June. With his usual boldness he summoned the Grand Master to surrender on the 11th, and the Grand Master obeyed the summons. After the usual spoliation Bonaparte left a garrison at Malta under General Vaubois, and embarked on the 19th for Egypt. He escaped the English fleet under Nelson, and on the 29th of June came in sight of Alexandria, and landed a few miles from that city without serious opposition. The garrison of Alexandria shut the gates and prepared for defence. The town, however, was easily taken; and Bonaparte issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of Egypt, in which he told them that he came as the friend of the Sultan to deliver them from the oppression of the Memluks, and that he and his soldiers respected God, the Prophet, and the Koran. On the 7th of July the army moved on towards Cairo. They were much annoyed on the road by parties of Memluks and Arabs; but, after a harassing march, they arrived on the 21st in sight of the great pyramids, and saw the whole Memluk force under Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey encamped before them at Embabel. The Memluks formed a splendid cavalry of about 8000 men, besides the Arab auxiliaries, and had about 20,000 almost worthless Fellah infantry. The great "battle of the Pyramids" was fought with them on 22nd June, 1798. They charged furiously, and for a moment disordered one of the French squares, but succeeded no further, having no guns to support them. They were easily defeated, and of the remnants of this fine cavalry part retreated towards Upper Egypt, and part crossed the Nile and retreated towards Syria. Bonaparte two days afterwards entered Cairo without resistance, and assembled a divan or council of the principal friendly sheiks. It is not true that he or any of his generals, except Menou, made profession of Islamism, but he came perilously near to it. One of his proclamations begins, "We are true Moslems as you yourselves. Have we not destroyed the Pope, he who said it was our duty to make war on Moslems? Have we not destroyed the Knights of Malta, because the idiots believed that God was pleased when they went to war with Mos On the 14th of March the army marched towards Acre, which they reached on the 17th. Jezzar (that is, butcher) Pasha, a cruel, resolute old Turk, had prepared himself for a siege. Sir Sidney Smith, with the Tiger and Theses English ships of the line, after assisting him in repairing the old fortifications of the place, brought his ships clase to the town, which projects into the sea, ready to take part in the defence. Colonel Phelippeaux, a French offer of engineers, who had been Bonaparte's schoolfellow at Paris, and had been in prison under the Revolution with Sir Sidney Smith, where he helped him in his gallant escape (1798), directed the artillery of the garrison of Acre. Bonaparte was compelled to batter the walls with twelve-pounders, but by the 28th of March he had effected a breach. The month of April was spent in useless attempts to storm the place; and, moreover, as Sir Sidney Smith captured a French convoy coming up from Joppa Bonaparte had the humiliation of seeing his own siege-gand set up on the ramparts and fired at him with his ammunition. On the 20th of May Bonaparte made a last effort, in which General Bon was killed, with most of the storming party. Seven or eight assaults had been made the trenches and ditches were filled with the slain, which the fire of the besieged prevented them from burying; disease, assisted by the heat of the climate, was spreading fast in their camp. After fifty-four days from the ope ing of the trenches Bonaparte saw himself under the necessity of raising the siege. Accordingly be resolved to return to Egypt. On the 21st of May the French army broke up frem before Acre and began its retreat, leaving 3000 men in the sand before Sir Sidney's bravely defended "rablis heaps." The route lay through Jaffa, and everything was burned as they passed along, villages, harvest, and all Before leaving Jaffa Bonaparte ordered the hospitals t cleared, and all those who could be removed to be forwardal to Egypt by sea. There remained 400 (Sir Robert Wilson says 580) patients, suffering from the plague, who were in a desperate condition and could not be removed. Napoleon asked Desgenettes, the chief physician, whether it would not be an act of humanity to administer opium to them. Desgenettes replied that "his business was to cure and not to kill." Some other physician was less scrupulous than Desgenettes, and the patients were found dead, except one or two, when Jaffa fell into the hands of the English. Bonaparte reached Cairo on the 14th of June, after a most disastrous march. But the bands were kept playing; a little affair at the Jordan was trumpeted forth as a great victory; the capture of Jaffa and Gaza and the "destruction" of Acre were boasted of as first-class achievements; and the "victorious army" was said to have "retreated only before the plague." No wonder that when the shameless mendacity of this extraordinary man was afterwards discerned, men made a proverb, "lying as a bulletin!" Napoleon was determined not to leave without some brilliant success to wipe away the memory of defeat. Fortunately for his plans, towards the end of July the Turkish fleet landed 18,000 men at Aboukir, under Said Mustapha Pasha. Bonaparte immediately attacked them, and won the victory of Aboukir (25th July, 1799), in which 10,000 of the Turks are said to have perished either by the bayonet or in the sea. He learned from the papers he now obtained the disasters of the French armies at home, the loss of Italy, the general dissatisfaction prevailing in France against the Directory, the intrigues and animosities among the Directors themselves and between them and the legislative councils. He burned more than ever to return to France. He kept it, however, a secret from the army, and with a few favourite officers embarked at Alexandria on the 23rd of August, writing to Kléber to take command of the French army in Egypt, which amounted to about 22,000 men. To avoid the chance of refusal he appointed a meeting with Kléber "to confer on important matters," naming a day when he knew he should be some hundred miles and more at sea. When Kléber arrived he found his general fled, and himself left in command of a sick, broken, and dispirited army, hopelessly pinned in a hostile country. He wrote most bitter reproaches to the Directory, which, of course, all fell into Bonaparte's own hands. Bonaparte escaped the English cruisers, and anchored on 9th October in the Gulf of Fréjus, to the eastward of Toulon. Hurrying to Paris, he found himself courted by various parties. He decided on joining Sieyes and his friends, and giving him his military support; and the day for attempting a change in the constitution was fixed. The Council of Ancients met at six o'clock in the morning of the 18th Brumaire (9th November, 1799) at the Tuileries, and resolved upon the reform of the constitution; and in a few days, by Napoleon and the army, acting nominally under the orders of the Council of the Ancients, quietly and without bloodshed, the revolution known as that of Brumaire was effected, all malcontents were banished, the Directory was abolished, and the executive vested in three provisional consuls-Sieyès, Ducos, and Bonaparte. At their first sitting Sieyes having said something about turns of presidency, Ducos immediately replied, "The general takes the chair, of course." Sieyès perceived that his own influence was at an end; he and his friends had given themselves a master. The new constitution was called the constitution of the year VIII. Under it Bonaparte was appointed chief consul, with the right of appointing to all public offices and of proposing all public measures, such as war or peace, with the command of the forces of every description, and the management of the internal and foreign departments of the state, &c. Bonaparte being thus appointed, or rather confirmed, in his office of first consul or chief magistrate, appointed Cambacérès and Lebrun second and third consuls. They, NAPOLEON I. together with Sieyes and Ducos, late consuls, appointed the majority of the members of the senate, who themselves appointed the remainder. The senate next named the 100 tribunes and the 300 members of the legislative body; and thus the whole legislature was filled up at once, under the pretence that there was no time to wait for lists of candidates to be named by the departments. The constitution was submitted to the people: 3,012,569 voted1562 rejected, and 3,011,007 accepted the new constitution, which was solemnly proclaimed 24th December, 1799. The churches, which had been closed by the Convention, were re-opened, the law of the Decades was repealed, the computation by weeks resumed, &c. France was still at war with Austria, England, and the Porte. The First Consul first confirmed Prussia in its neutrality, and then addressed a letter to the King of England in person, expressing a wish for peace between the two nations. Lord Grenville, secretary of state for foreign affairs, returned an evasive answer, expressing doubts as to the stability of the present government of France, an uncertainty which would affect the security of the negotiations. Bonaparte was not sorry his overture was rejected. He next turned to La Vendée, offered a complete amnesty for the past, and by the treaty of Montluçon in January, 1800, the Vendean war was practically brought to an end. Bonaparte now was free to pay all his attention to the war against Austria. He gave to Moreau the command of the Army of the Rhine, and himself assumed the direction of that of Italy. He repaired to Lausanne on 13th May, 1800, and marched, with about 36,000 men and forty pieces of cannon, over the mountain pass of the Great St. Bernard, which had till then been considered impracticable for the passage of an army, and especially for artillery. The cannons were dismounted, put into hollow trunks of trees, and dragged by the soldiers; the carriages were taken to pieces, and carried on mules. The French army descended to Aosta in Lombardy, and found itself in the rear of Melas' Austrian army. Bonaparte entered Milan on the 2nd of June, without meeting with any opposition, and was there joined by other French divisions which had passed by the Simplon and the St. Gothard. He now marched to meet Melas, who had hastily assembled his army near Alessandria. Passing the Po at Piacenza, he drove back Melas' advanced guard at Casteggio, near Voghera, and on the 14th June the battle of Marengo was fought, in which, after a hard contest and immense slaughter, the Austrians were defeated. An armistice was concluded on the 16th of June between the two armies, by which Melas surrendered Piedmont and all the Genoese territory. The First Consul having established provisional governments at Milan, Turin, and Genoa, returned to Paris, where he arrived on the 3rd of July, and was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Nevertheless, royalists and republicans were alike dissatisfied with the dictatorship of Napoleon, and several plots were formed against his life, the most serious of which was that of the "infernal machine," on 24th December, 1800, from which he had a narrow escape, and on account of which many persons were executed. Meanwhile Moreau defeated the Austrians, commanded by the Archduke John, in the great battle of Hohenlinden, and advanced towards Vienna, and the French in Italy drove the Austrians beyond the Adigé and the Brenta. In Austria was now obliged to make a separate peace with France (treaty of Lunéville, 9th February, 1801). England, Mr. Addington had succeeded Mr. Pitt as prime minister, and Egypt and Malta having surrendered to the English, the chief obstacles to peace were removed. The preliminaries of peace with England were signed at Paris, 10th October, 1801, and the definitive treaty was signed at Amiens, 26th March, 1802. The principal conditions were, that Malta should be restored to the Knights of St. John (which provision, as we shall see later, was never NAPOLEON L executed; the independence of the new Batarim. Heiratic. Cisalpine, and Ligurian republies was guaranteed: Egypt was restored to the Sultan, the Cape of Good Hope to Holland, and the French West Inda Banus to France. England retained the islan i of Cerka In April, 1801. a general amnesty had been granted. with certain exceptions, to all the emigres if the remilationary times who ebose to return to France and take the cath of fidelity to the government within a certain perbud: and such property of the returned emitracts as bad bit been sold was restored to them. Az.ther ecc SLADET measure was the Contendat erudinded with the F Pr September. Flas Vii. made several rincessions sell ever grated by his presevs8,7%. He suppressed many bishoprics, be sanctioned the sale of charth property wildh bad taken place, and entrmed the total abolitie i ozvents. On Easter Sunday, 182, the Cloerriat wis published at Faris, trother with a decree of repatiits spon matters of discipize, with were so expressed as t. make then appear part of the text of the original Coccrdat. Izei pe made remonstrances as to this neariof proceeding, to wain Beniparte turned a deaf ear. Berations eleming the discribe of the Protestant &miles in Fratte were sword at the same time as well as a decree that Protestant ministers were also to be paid by the state. In January, 182, Bonaparte, after considerable secret pitting, acrised together at Lys the members of the provisional government of the Cisalpine Repable and others. who, when they met, armed to a new constiratila, and requested that the First Consal would assume the chief He Switzerland was at this the Extracted by diri war. Bonaparte formed a new federation f nineteen cantiox with himself as medite of the Helvetic Leat retained, however, for France Geneva and the bishopric of Basel, which had been seized by the Directory; and be separated from Switzerland the Valais, which he afterwards wined to France. to senare the liberty of the press," forbade any books) • to patish any work until he had submitted a copy of i to the commission of revision. Journals had already been placed under still greater restrictions. In 1812 Besaparte best St. Don'nge, where the bin k resited and destroyed a French army. At this time se re-established the slave trade in Guadeloupe and Mrindone. Spain cave up Luisiana to France, wiki Frame afterwards soud to the United States for 15,000,000.00, By another treaty with Portugal. France acquired Par prese Galana. In Italy France took possession d the Cosby of Farma at the death of the Duke Ferdin. 1 October. 18:2, an i likewise of the island of Elba by m Amenect with Naples and Tuscany. The annexatët d Piedmont to France text filled up the measure of alam of the other powers at Bonaparte's encroachments. Eng land refused to deliver up Malta, on the grand that the treaty of Amiens had been viclated in seven prendia On the 18th of May, 183, Englan i declared war agains France, and laid an embargo upen all French vessels a ber parts. In retaliation for this Bonaparte prom the stamfal crier of the 22nd May, that all the Euzish of whatever eendition found on the territory of kraam sbonla be detained as prisoners of war; ar 1 General Metr wis sent to occupy the electorate of Have, KÜL belonged to the King of Great Britain. Bonaparte had directed a commission of lawyers of the fre edinence, under the presidency of Canbaneres, të frame or digest a code of laws for France. The Chie Napien astiates perhaps the hit seful bepest d Bonaparte's rele See CopL He also provided handsumer ft palle instruction, especially ir sentär The provincial administration of France was at this time In February, 1864, the police discovered the enging of Fisterra, Morean, and Georges Cadondal against themesular movernment, and it was also falsely asserted this se Dne d'Enghien was ecncerned in the conspiracy. Georges Picherra, and Morean were arrested in Paris, and ente 14th of March a party of gendarmes from Strasburg the Ribe, entered the neutral territory of Bobey xan rounded the château of Ettenlcim, seized the Dae & En and ES attendants, and took him to the citadel of Stras bars. Un the morning of the 18th the duke was pat u a carriage, and taken under an escort to the Cast Vincennes, tear Paris, where be arrived in the evening of the 17th. A military erart of seven members asser. at Vin sinnes that very night, and after a mockery of ma the prince was condemned, without a particle of es 2.0. sected to be shot, and the sentence was execute a the 21st of March by torch-light in the castle ditch of Vincennes. Of course the whole matter was a streke policy in the part of the First Consul. The price was 3 Barten grandson of the Prince of Condé, cze of 5o exiled ryalists, and his murder was a definite break #1 that party, by which Bonaparte hoped to win the far the suspitions and alienated Jacobin, friends of his reOF VISIE On the 6th of April Pichezra was found a in his prison, strangled by himself, as was reported, but Dit belemed In the meantine a netin was mai uze Curée, to bestow upon Napoleon Bararte the tre d expat, with hereditary succession lis fa Carn talize spoke against the motion, which, I were 1. passed by a great may ry on the 3rd of May. Ther tie was then submitted to the people. Above a of the registered votes were favourable, and between a and 45 ountrary. However, even before the vites wa depicts the central power or execative. En de elected. Napoleon assumed the title of EmperorN patutul si a preinct, who liad the chei evil authority, Cloud, 18th May, 1894. On the 19th Le ista He was gezera. Y a stranger to the deputet, menda cree appointing eighteen of his first generals LSA large salary, and was removed or discissed at the will the Five à Empire. The decrees of the new seven de Bonaparte. The navors of the t, was cf Deum Inhabitants were at first beaded-"Napoleon, by the grace of and upwards were appointed by Bonaparte: those of the and the onstitution of the Republic, Emperor of the ་་་་་་ ོན་ abitats, as well as a the mem- Fren" &c; but the name of the republic was afterwü i to muskujul case & were applied by the dropped. In the mouth of June the trial of Ma vfects. Thus al renal a mankipal Gerges and the ethers concerned in the empat rty and popular d'ection were quietly abre took place. Twenty of the accused, with Gorgs Å "ce, and the chief (atward results of the their bend, were condemned to death; but a few wire ro à cessed to exist. In September. 1868 a prieved. Morean, the only general of whose talent N azsa, & “in cräer,” as it is cynically stated,, was ever really jealously afraid, was banished to the regatited upon one uniform plan, and was made entirely States. (He was shot at the battle of Dresden, fighting against his country in the German army, in 1813. See the article MOREAU.) Napoleon was crowned by the Pope at Notre Dame in Paris (2nd December, 1804), and on the 26th of May, 1805, in consequence of a request from the senate of the Italian Republic, he was cwned King of Italy at Milan by the archbishop of that cty; but it was stipulated that the two crowns of France and Italy should remain united only on Napoleon's head, and that he should appoint a separate successor to the Italian kingdom. He appointed his stepson, Eugène Beauharnais, his viceroy of the kingdom of Italy. A decree of Napoleon, of the 9th of June, united Genoa to France; ani Lucca was transformed into a principality, and given to Eliza, Napoleon's sister, and her husband, Baciocchi, to be bolden as a fief of the French Empire. Thus two more Italian republics disappeared; San Marino alone remained. In the preceding year (1804) Napoleon had assembled a large force on the shores of the Channel, with a flotilla at Bugne, and had given it the name of "the Army of England." The invasion of England and the plunder of Londen were confidently talked of among his soldiers, but there is reason to think the whole affair was a gigantic bax; for on the formation of a coalition between the alarmed powers of England, Austria, and Russia (with whom Sweden also joined herself), Napoleon at once declared war, and marched all his magnificent "English" force It has rapid manner upon the Rhine, appointing Massena at the same time general in Italy (August, 1805). On the 23rd of September, 1805, the emperor went in state to the senate, where he delivered a speech on the occasion of the war. He then repaired to Mainz, where he teck the command of the Grand Army-a name which was afterwards always applied to the army while he commanded in person. General Mack, completely taken by surprise by the lightning swiftness of Napoleon's movements, allowed Linself to be surrounded at Ulm, and surrendered, on the 17th of October, with more than 20,000 men. The other Austrian divisions were unable to unite, and the French estered Vienna on the 13th of November. The Russian army had by this time assembled in Moravia, under the Emperor Alexander in person. Being joined by some Austrian divisions, it amounted to about 80,000 men. The great battle of Austerlitz was fought against this new foe on the 2nd of December, 1805. The two armies were nearly equal in number. The Russians and Austrians extended their line too much. Bonaparte broke through it, and separated their divisions, which, after a stout resistance, were routed in detail. The loss of the allies was tremendous. Thousands were drowned in the lakes in the rear of their position now covered with ice, which gave way under the weight. The Emperor of Austria had an interview with Napoleon the day after, and an armistice was concluded, by which the remaining Russian troops were allowed to retire to their own country. Peace between Austria and France was signed at Pressburg on the 2th of December, 1805. Austria gave up the Venetian provinces and Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, Tyrol to the Elector of Bavaria, and other districts, besides a contribution of 100,000,000 francs. Napoleon raised the Ectors of Bavaria and Würtemberg to the rank of kings, and placed himself at the head of all the smaller German States, which he formed into the Confederation of the ne, under his protection. The old German Empire was thus dissolved. Soon afterwards, the Emperor Francis formally renounced his title of Emperor of Germany, and assumed the title of Francis I., Emperor of Austria. All these triumphs almost lost their savour to him by the fatal hews which arrived amid them of Nelson's victory of Tra ar over the French and Spanish (21st October, 1805). Overwhelmed by Napoleon's cruel reproaches the vanquished admiral (Villeneuve) committed suicide. NAPOLEON L The King of Naples had meanwhile allowed a Russian and English army to land in his dominions. Napoleon sent an army to Naples in February, 1806, and King Ferdinand took refuge in Sicily. On this, a decree of Napoleon, March, 1806, appointed his brother Joseph king of Naples and of Sicily. On the 6th of June following, he appointed, by another decree, his brother Louis king of Holland, thus transforming by a stroke of the pen the Batavian Republic into a kingdom dependent on France. His brother-in-law, Murat, was made Grand-duke of Berg. Prussia had been a long time wavering; and, to keep her in good humour, Napoleon had made Hanover over to her, which, though at peace with England, she had accepted: but at length, on the 2nd of October, 1806, she declared war. The King of Prussia issued his manifesto from Erfurt, on the 9th of October, 1806, and in one week from that time Napoleon's double victory at Auerstädt and Jena (16th October) decided the campaign. He entered Berlin on the 21st of October. He at once despatched Mortier to occupy Hamburg and seize all English property there, and on the 21st of November, 1806, issued his well-known "Berlin decree" against British commerce, and founding what he called the continental system. He decreed a blockade of all the ports of the Continent against English commerce or correspondence, from the furthest Prussia to the Adriatic. All English property abroad was confiscate; all Englishmen prisoners, this too without any previous notice. All goods in English bottoms, even if not English goods, were lawful prize to any one who could take them. Thus frantically did Napoleon's hatred against the one free nation of Europe, and the enemy which he felt might one day prove his ruin, at last make itself fully manifest. The English retorted by "Orders in Council "against French ships entering English ports, &c.; but it is needless to say that French property in England was as safe as our own. Meantime the King of Prussia had fled to Königsberg, and the Russian armies advanced to the Vistula. The French occupied Warsaw. Napoleon began his winter campaign against the Russians by the battle of Pultusk (28th December), in which the French, experiencing a severe check, retired towards the Vistula; but on the 8th of February, 1807, Napoleon thoroughly beat the Russians under Beningsen at the great battle of Eylau. The battle lasted till near ten o'clock at night. The loss on both sides has been roughly estimated at 50,000 men. On the 13th of June the battle of Friedland took place, in which, after an obstinate struggle, the Russians were at last worsted. They were driven beyond the River Aller, and retreated to Tilsit, where an interview took place between Bonaparte and Alexander on a raft in the middle of the Niemen on the 25th of June, and soon afterwards a treaty of peace was finally signed. The King of Prussia was restored to about one-half of his former territories, as far as the Elbe. The duchy of Warsaw was given to the Elector of Saxony, who was made a king, and became the faithful ally of Napoleon. Russia made no sacrifices; on the contrary, she obtained a part of Prussian Poland. But there were secret articles to the treaty, by which France allowed Russia to take Finland from Sweden; and Russia, on her part, promised to join the "continental system" and close her ports against British vessels. On the 9th July, Napoleon left Tilsit to return to Paris. Having stripped the Elector of Hesse-Cassel of his dominions, under the plea that he had not joined him in the war against Prussia, as well as the Duke of Brunswick of his, on the ground that the duke had joined Prussia against him, Napoleon created out of these and other districts the kingdom of Westphalia, 18th August, 1807, and gave it to his brother Jerome, who took up his residence at Cassel. Soon after, the Prince Regent of Portugal having refused to enforce the continental system" against England, Napoleon sent Junot with 30,000 men across Spain to take possession of |
