are no aborigines now in Van Diemen's Land, these having been lately conveyed to an island in Bass's Strait, and an order has been issued by the home government for their removal to Port Philip district, New South Wales. Regarding the bush-rangers, or runaway convicts, from the effective police force kept up, their depredations are confined to the less-populated districts, and even there they seldom exist long without being captured.

The capital of the colony is Hobart Town, situated on the left bank of the river Derwent, at the head of a beautiful bay, distant about twenty miles from its junction with the sea. The town is pleasantly situated on a gently rising ground, which, gradually retiring, terminates ultimately in hills of considerable height, covered with wood, and presenting a most romantic appearance. These again are overlooked by one of still greater altitude, called Mount Wellington, which rises to the height of 4000 feet above the level of the sea. Hobart Town is thus happily placed between highly-picturesque hills on the one hand, and a beautiful bay or arm of the sea on the other; for, though the Derwent be here called a river, it can be so called only in a very extended sense, the water being still salt, and of considerable width. The town itself covers somewhat more than a square mile of ground; the houses are principally constructed of wood, though many of them are of brick and freestone. The streets are regularly laid out, and those of them that have been completed are macadamised, and present on either side long rows of large and handsome shops. The town derives a peculiar and highly pleasing character too from the circumstance of the houses in general standing apart from each other, each having a small plot of ground, from a quarter to half an acre in extent, attached to it. Its public buildings are numerous, and many of them would be considered handsome even in Britain. The town contains breweries, tanneries, distilleries, flour-mills, two or three banks, hospitals, churches, schools, charitable and stipendiary, inns, taverns, hotels, and grog-shops ad infinitum, and everything else which bespeaks a thriving, bustling, industrious, and civilised community.

The town next in importance to the capital is Launceston, situated at the junction of the North and South Esk, at the head of the navigable portion of the river Tamar, which discharges itself into Bass's Strait, about forty-five miles below the town. The town presents a very business-like appearance, with its shipping, wharfs, stores, and public buildings, all calculated to impress the stranger even on a cursory glance with a high idea of its rising importance. From the favourable nature of its situation for commercial purposes, the river being navigable for vessels of 500 tons burthen up to the town, the trade of Launceston is very considerable, and is every day increasing.

The population of the colony in 1842 was estimated at 50,216; but must now be considerably increased, both from the natural progress of population, and the influx of additional immigrants. In 1839, the landsales amounted to 42,386 acres, at the average of 10s. 2d.; and in 1840 to 88,296 acres, at 11s. 4d., exclusive of town lots and military grants. The principal exports are wheat, wool (in 1841, 3,597,531 lbs.), whaleoil, bark, &c. amounting in 1840 to £867,000; and the imports, comprising all kinds of British manufactures, colonial products, spirits, wines, farming implements, &c. to £988,356. In 1842 the official value of exports to the United Kingdom was £134,150; and that of the imports from the United Kingdom £260,730. At present the annual revenue of the colony is about £100,000, and the expenditure about £138,000. The leading, if not the only misfortune under which Van Diemen's Land labours, is a deficiency of good roads.

NEW ZEALAND.

New Zealand consists mainly of two large islands, called the Middle Island and the North Island, separated by a passage called Cook's Straits, with numerous

smaller isles scattered around their shores. They lie in the great southern ocean in an easterly direction from Australia, and at a distance of about 1200 miles from that continent. The New Zealand islands are situated between the 34th and 48th degrees of south latitude, and the 166th and 179th of east longitude. The Middle Island is about 500 miles long, and from 100 to 120 broad. The northern island is the smaller, being about 400 miles long, and from 5 to 30 broad; both being estimated to contain nearly 95,000 square miles, of which two-thirds are fit for cultivation. New Zealand was first discovered in 1642 by Tasman, who, however, did not land, supposing it to form a part of the southern continent. Captain Cook first sailed round the islands, and surveyed their shores with so much accuracy, that his charts are depended upon even to the present day. The distance of New Zealand from Great Britain is rather more than to New South Wales, or about 16,000 miles, but is reached by the same line of voyage round the Cape of Good Hope, the return being by Cape Horn. Vessels reach New Zealand from Sydney in ten or twelve days. New Zealand is evidently of volcanic origin, there being many extinct and a few active volcanoes in the interior of the islands. Hot springs have also been found, some of which are described as higher than boiling heat, and most of them of a sufficient temperature to cook any kind of native food. A chain of mountains runs through the whole of the southern, and a considerable part of the northern island. Some of these mountains are as high as 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, their tops being covered with perpetual snow, and their sides with forest-trees and luxuriant ferns. Besides this chain of mountains, there are other subordinate ranges, which, for the most part, are covered with vegetation to the summit.

There are numbers of fine streams and rivers scattered throughout the country, which have their origin in these mountains. Several of the rivers are navigable to a small extent, and possess waterfalls which afford the means of establishing mills in most parts of the country. From the shape of the islands, and the mountains which intersect them, the rivers do not run to any great length, from 100 to 200 miles being the average. In 1838, the ship Pelorus entered a river in the southern island falling into Cook's Straits, and sailed up more than 30 miles, and her boats continued the navigation for 20 miles farther. The river Hokianga, in the northern island, situated almost opposite the Bay of Islands, has been navigated 30 miles by vessels of 500 tons burthen. Another river, the Haritoua, which falls into Port Nicholson, is said to be navigable for a considerable distance inland.

The bays and harbours of New Zealand are not surpassed either in number or advantages by those of any country in the world. Beginning with the North Island, we have first the harbour of Wangaroa, the entrance to which is narrow; but inside, the harbour is spacious and well-sheltered. The Bay of Islands is about 25 miles south of Wangaroa, and is the harbour which has been hitherto most frequented by Europeans. The entrance to the bay is 11 miles broad, and perfectly safe, there being no bar. Inside, the bay is studded with a number of rocky islands; the water is deep close to the shore, and the anchorage is excellent. To the south of the Bay of Islands is the Firth of the Thames, which contains several well-protected harbours. The tide flows in this firth to the height of from 8 to 10 feet, and at all times there is plenty of water for ships of almost any tonnage. The Bay of Plenty, on the north-east coast, is formed by the island becoming much broader in a curved direction. This bay is very large, and possesses an excellent harbour called Tauranga, which is much frequented for the shipment of flax, &c. Hawke's Bay is very extensive and deep, the soundings showing from 6 to 27 fathoms water. The most important harbour in the northern island is Port Nicholson, situated in Cook's Straits. The bay is about 12 miles long and 3 broad, perfectly sheltered, and ships may enter or leave

with any wind. The depth of water is from 7 to 11 fathoms, and the whole bay is described as of sufficient capacity to hold a navy. Port Nicholson has the disadvantage of being upon a lee shore, but this objection can only have weight with regard to the navigation of Cook's Straits, not to vessels lying in the port itself. On the west coast of the North Island the harbours have generally a bar at the entrance, which render their navigation more dangerous than those on the east coast. The best harbour on the west coast is that of Hokianga. It receives the river of the same name, and a number of smaller streams; and from all accounts it seems to be a valuable district for settlement. There is a bar at the entrance with 3 fathoms water at low ebb; but the tide rises 12 feet, and inside the harbour deepens to 17 fathoms. To the south of Hokianga occurs the harbour of Kaipara, which is 30 miles long, and receives the waters of three considerable streams. In the middle island, within Cook's Straits, is the fine harbour of Queen Charlotte's Sound, which is nearly 30 miles long. Ship Cove, within this sound, is a very fine harbour, to which European vessels have long repaired, in consequence of its having been described by Captain Cook. The harbour is perfectly sheltered, and the soundings show 10 fathoms a cable's length from the shore. At the north-western extremity of this island is Cloudy Bay, which runs 15 miles inland, and is about 4 miles broad. Besides these two harbours, there are many others in the island, such as Lookers-on Bay, Port Gore, and Blind Bay; all affording facilities for roadsteads and harbours.

From the position of New Zealand being north and south, it presents great variety of climate considering the size of the country. All accounts agree, however, in describing it as highly salubrious, and very congenial to European constitutions. Spring commences in the middle of August; summer in December; autumn in March; and winter in July. During winter the temperature ranges from 40° to 50° in some parts, and in others the average is higher. In summer the thermometer ranges from 64° to 80°, which is the highest temperature given. Mr Yate, in his Account of New Zealand, speaking of the climate, says-Those who come here sickly are soon restored to health; the healthy become robust, and the robust fat. North of the Thames snows are unknown; and frosts are off the ground by nine o'clock in the morning. The country, during six months in the year, is subject to heavy gales from the east and north-east, which generally last for three days, and are accompanied with heavy falls of rain. In the winter season the moon rarely either changes or wanes without raising one of these tempestuous gales; and during the whole year the wind is sure to blow, though it may be only for a few hours, from the east, every full and change of the moon. The spring and autumn are delightfully temperate, but subject to showers from the west-south-west. Indeed, however fine the summer may be, we are frequently visited by refreshing rains, which give a peculiar richness to the vegetation and fertility of the land. The prevailing winds are from the south-west and northwest, which, within this range, blow upwards of nine months in the year; more frequently the wind is due west. During five months sea-breezes set in from either coast, and meet each other half way across the island.' The climate of New Zealand has one great advantage over that of Australia, in not being subject to the severe droughts which so often destroy the hopes of the farmer in that country. Its insular position, and the lofty mountains which intersect the country, insure it a constant supply of rain. This circumstance gives it a decided superiority over Australia in an agricultural point of view, rendering it more suitable for the growth of grain; though we are not aware of its being greatly superior to Van Diemen's Land. It does not appear that there are any diseases peculiar to the climate of New Zealand: all accounts agree in describing the inhabitants as a robust and healthy-looking people. Captain Cook says he never saw a single person among

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them who appeared to have any bodily complaint; and their wounds healed with astonishing rapidity. The soil of New Zealand appears in almost every part to be excellent, well adapted for cultivating all sorts of grain, and indeed most European vegetables. Around the mountains the soil is volcanic, somewhat resembling that of some parts of Italy. In other parts it appears to be a fine stiff loam and vegetable mould, very productive. Captain Cook, describing the valleys, says The soil in these valleys and in the plains, of which there are many that are not overgrown with wood, is in general light but fertile; and in the opinion of Mr Banks and Dr Solander, as well as of every other gentleman on board, every kind of European grain, plant, and fruit, would flourish here in the utmost luxuriance.' The natives cultivate the potato in considerable quantities, which yields them a good crop without much trouble. There is also plenty of fine open land, consisting of alluvial soil deposited from the mountains, which would yield abundant crops of wheat, maize, barley, and other grains. In other parts the soil consists of a deep stiff vegetable mould on a marly subsoil, capable of being slaked with the ashes of the fern. Mr Yate says-All English grasses flourish well, but the white clover never seeds: and where the fern has been destroyed, a strong native grass, something of the nature of the Canary grass, grows in its place, and effectually prevents the fern from springing up again. Every diversity of European fruit and vegetable flourishes in New Zealand.'

The forest-trees grow to a very great size, many of them being larger than those of America or any country in the world-a sure proof of the fertility of the soil. The largest tree is that called the kauri, belonging to the pine tribe. It grows in some cases to the height of eighty or ninety feet without branching, and the branches themselves may be compared to ordinary trees. The trunk is of immense girth, and the wood tough and light, being admirably adapted for shipbuilding, or almost any other purpose. Another tree, called the totara, reaches a height of from fifty to sixty feet, and a circumference of twenty feet. Its wood is very hard, of a red colour, works easily, and from its size and strength may be applied to many useful purposes. The puriri, or New Zealand oak, is a tree of great hardness and durability, the wood being of a dark-brown colour, and capable of taking on a beautiful polish. It has been known to remain twenty years under ground, in a wet soil, without rotting. The farairi, a tree of the laurel tribe, reaches the great height of from fifty to seventy feet, while its diameter is not more than three feet. It has a very beautiful appearance, and is one of the chief ornaments of the woods, but does not appear to be applied to any useful purpose. Besides these, there are many other trees in New Zealand, especially the pines, which are said to afford very superior timber for ship and house building, and also furniture-making.

The Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, is another important vegetable production, which is likely to form an article of considerable export. It is said to resemble the garden iris in appearance, having a green thick leaf from six to ten feet long, and growing in the greatest luxuriance throughout the country. The fibres of the leaf of this plant are used for making ropes, and many competent judges state that it is better adapted for this purpose than the European flax. Mr Ward thus sums up his account of the vegetable productions:- New Zealand is fitted by nature for the production in abundance of those three articles which have always been regarded as the especial signs of the plenty, wealth, and luxury of the country-corn, wine, and oil. Its fertile plains adapt it to the easy cultivation of grain, for the surplus production of which it will possess a ready market, from its vicinity to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, where, from the high profits of wool-growing, grain from foreign countries will always find a ready demand. The vine has also been tried, and found to thrive luxuriantly in both islands.”

Little definite is known of the mineral productions of New Zealand. Iron and coal are found in abundance, along with bitumen, freestone, marble, sulphur, and copper. A blue pigment made use of by the natives is said to be manganese, and there is a valuable green stone (nephrite) found exclusively in the middle island, which, when polished, excels in beauty many of our finer marbles. There is also abundance of clay fit for brick-making and earthenware.

There are no native quadrupeds in New Zealand, those at present existing having been left by Captain Cook and other Europeans during their visits to the islands. Pigs are numerous, having spread very rapidly throughout the country. They are said to grow to an enormous size, and are highly valued by the natives. Dogs abound, especially about the Bay of Islands; and cats are also plentiful, and are eaten by the natives. The cattle which have been introduced by the missionaries are said to thrive well. Sheep have also been tried, and in some open parts succeeded; but New Zealand, as already stated, is more of an agricultural than a pastoral country. The only reptile yet seen in the islands is a small species of lizard. Birds are very numerous, and are described by all travellers as beautiful songsters. Amongst the feathered tribe may be mentioned ducks, geese, woodcocks, snipes, curlews, and wood-pigeons, as affording food to man. Some of the birds are very remarkable. One, called by the natives the tui, has the power of imitating the notes of all the other birds with great exactness. Another, called the kiwi, is about the size of a young turkey, and its plumage resembles that of the Australian emu, being long, straight, and coarse. It has neither wings nor tail, but runs with great swiftness along the ground, and can only be caught by dogs. Fish are very abundant all round the coast, and are of most excellent quality. Whales also frequent the coasts of New Zealand for the purpose of calving, and are caught in large numbers. This trade alone is very considerable, and would no doubt be greatly extended were settleinents more numerous in the country.

The aboriginal natives of New Zealand were formerly savage and dangerous, but are now partially improved, and harmless in disposition. From all accounts they are susceptible of much greater improvement than the natives of Australia, being ready in apprehension and tractable. They generally dwell in small villages. In their intercourse with Europeans, the New Zealanders have on all occasions manifested a desire to learn, and great aptitude in acquiring civilised customs. Regarding the amount of the native population, it can only be guessed at-probably about 90,000.

In 1842 the colonial population was estimated at 17,000, but must now exceed 23,000. In the same year the value exported to Britain was £10,998, while the imports from Britain amounted to £42,753.

POLYNESIA.

Polynesia-from two Greek words, signifying many isles-is the name given to the numerous groups scattered over the central parts of the Pacific Ocean, within 30 degrees on both sides of the equator. The chief clusters north of this line are the Sandwich in the east, and the Ladrones and Carolines in the west; and south of it, the Marquesas in the east, the Society Islands in the middle, and the Friendly, including the Fejce and Navigators', in the west. The Sandwich, Society, and Marquesas Islands are of volcanic origin-steep, rugged, and lofty; the active craters of Owhyhee being 13,000, 14,000, and 16,000 feet above the sea level, and the verdant and wooded heights of Tahiti rising to an elevation of 10,000 feet. The other groups, with few exceptions, are entirely of coral formation, elevated but a few feet above the sea, and appearing as long narrow reefs, circular reefs enclosing lagoons, or barrier reefs encircling inner islets, from which they are separated by deep narrow channels.

Situated within the tropics, but with an atmosphere tempered by the surrounding ocean, and in the larger islands by the above-mentioned mountains, the climate is delightful, and the soil exceedingly fertile. Among the native productions are the bread-fruit, cocoa, banana, pandanus, plantain, and a variety of tropical fruits; the taro, yam, batata, and other farinaceous roots. Among those successfully introduced are the orange, lemon, sugar-cane, cotton, potato, melon, cucumber, guava, &c. The only quadrupeds found on the islands when first visited by Europeans were hogs, dogs, and rats; but birds were numerous, consisting of poultry, pigeons, turtle-doves, parrots, and other tropical genera. The shores abound with seafowl; and the sea teems with a vast variety of fishes, shellfish, crustacea, turtles, seals, and cetacea. The ox and horse have been brought to some of the larger islands from Europe or from America.

The natives seem to belong to the Malay variety of the human race, and have generally been found much more tractable than the barbarous tribes in other parts of the world. When first discovered, they were wholly idolatrous, addicted to cannibalism, infanticide, and similar vices; to the superstition of fetish and taboo; and to the fashion of tatooing. Within the last forty years a large proportion of the inhabitants of the Sandwich, Society, and Friendly Islands have embraced Christianity; and missionaries from the United States of America and Britain have taught them reading, writing, and a number of useful arts.

Island, New Georgia, and Greenland, which will require to be erected into a new geographical division. Following, however, the usual course of including these regions, and leaving the north-west passage' as still problematical, the area of the known continent may be stated at 8,000,000 square miles-the great mass of which lies within the northern temperate zone.

SUPERFICIAL FEATURES-GEOLOGY.

The general physical characteristics of the continent are remarkable for the magnitude of the scale upon which they are presented; the mountains, plains, lakes, and rivers, being superior to those of all other countries. They are thus summarily described in the System of Universal Geography:-1. The narrow region which separates the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea from the Pacific, traversed throughout its whole length by mountain-ranges, which leave a narrow tract of low land lying along the sea-coasts, while in certain portions of the interior they form elevated table-lands. Here the mountains (which may be considered as the commencement of the great Rocky chain) attain a culminating point in Guatemala of 14,900, and in the Mexican volcano of Popocatepetl of 17,735 feet; while the table-land of Mexico is from 4000 to 8000 feet in No. 69,

general altitude. 2. The maritime region between the Pacific Ocean on the west and the ridge of mountains which extends from Cape St Lucas in California northwards to Aliaska. This ridge has a general elevation of 8000 or 10,000 feet, but rises in Mount St Elias to 12,630. 3. The elevated region which forms a sort of table-land between the maritime chain before-mentioned on the west and the Rocky Mountains on the east. In its southern portion it presents the arid salt-plains of the Californian desert; between 40° and 45° north it presents a fertile region, with a mild and humid atmosphere; but beyond the last-mentioned parallel it is barren and inhospitable. 4. The great central valley of the Missouri and Mississippi, extending from the Rocky Mountains on the west to the Alleghanies on the east, and from the Gulf of Mexico northwards to the 45th or 50th degree north lat. Between these parallels runs in a waving line the watershed which divides the basins of the St Lawrence and the Mississippi from those of the streams that flow to Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Ocean. On the east side this region is rich and well-wooded; in the middle it is bare prairie ground, but not unfertile; towards the west it dry, sandy, and almost a desert. The Rocky Mountains, the greatest and most continuous of the

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