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MAUVE.

The mausoleum erected at Babylon by Alexander the Great, in honour of Hephaistión, appears to have been still more magnificent. Those of Augustus, in the Campus Martins, and Hadrian, at Rome, were structures of great magnitude and grandeur, and resembled each other in being circular in plan. Hadrian's is now converted into the Castle of St. Angelo, in which shape it is familiar to almost every one.

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in favour of younger and more active princes, he compeled Maximian to do the like (305); but the latter's sun. Maxentius, having usurped a share in the empire, recalled Es father to the throne (306). They quarrelled, but on the other hand the young Emperor Constantine married Max.mian's daughter Fausta, and invited him to reside in Gan. In 308 Maximian thought he saw the chance to return to real power, and vainly attempted to seize part of the imSuch places as Henry VII.'s Chapel and the Pantheon perial sway. Two years later (310) he tried to suborn his or the Escurial may also be considered as mausoleums; but daughter to murder her husband. She revealed the plot, the term is generally restricted to a detached edifice erected and Constantine condemned Maximian to death. He was merely as a private burying-place or to contain tombs. A allowed to destroy himself. beautiful mausoleum has been erected by Queen Victoria at Frogmore, at a cost of over £200,000, where the remains of the Prince Consort and the Duchess of Kent have been interred; and a handsome edifice of this nature, which is said to have cost £100,000, adorns the grounds of the Duke of Hamilton, at Hamilton, in Lanarkshire. Per-gundy possessions by his own marriage in 1477 with haps, however, the finest and most costly mausoleum ever erected in the world is to be found in the Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jehan to the memory of his wife Arjimand Banu, for a description of which the reader is referred to the article AGRA.

MAUVE. See DYEING.

MA'VIS, the name given in Scotland to the Turdus musicus, throstle, or song-thrush, which inhabits every European country, being permanent in Britain and spread over the three kingdoms. It haunts gardens and woods near streams and meadows. Its song is sweet and has considerable compass; it can be made to repeat musical airs, and in some instances to articulate words.

MAXIMIAN was also the name of the Emperor GALERIUS MAXIMILIAN I., Emperor of Germany, or more strictly of the Holy Roman Empire, from 1459 to 1519, was son of the Emperor Frederick III. He was born in 1459, acquired the ultimate inheritance of the vast Bar

Mary of Burgundy (daughter of Charles the Bold) and of Spain by the marriage of his son Philip to the Infanta Joanna in 1496. He later on inherited Tyrol and a large part of Bavaria. As regards his own empire he was a brilliant ruler. It is to him that the Reichs-kammer and the Reichs-hofrath (the Imperial Chamber and the Anlic Council) owe their existence; he founded a standing army, a system of police and justice, regulated the universities, and made literature and scholarship flourish. He was not content with these peaceful triumphs of liberal government and of diplomacy, but also contended with Charles VIII. and his successor, Louis XII. of France, for the mastery of Italy, and in 1499 he went to war with Switzerland also But in both enterprises he was very unsuccessful, and the Swiss may be said to have then achieved their independence of the empire. He did better in unwarlike operations By the marriage of his grandchildren with the heirs of Hungary and of Bohemia he laid the foundation for the addition of those crowns to that of Austria in the fulness of time. He was a great and splendid prince. At his death, in 1519, the empire passed to his grandson, Charis of Spain (Charles V.)

MAXIMILIAN II., son of Ferdinand I., was emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1564 to 1576. He showed himself liberally tolerant of Protestantism in his dominions in spite of the never-ending pressure of the Jesuits.

MAXEN TIUS, Roman Emperor from A.D. 306 to 312. His full name was Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius. Maxentius was the son of the Emperor Maximian, the colleague of Diocletian, but was not named for the succession when those great princes abdicated (305). He therefore raised his standard, and was proclaimed emperor by the troops at Rome. His father, Maximian, joined him at his request and resumed his crown. After defeating Galerius, his rival in the empire, and freeing himself from his father's control, he brought Africa under his dominion and began to aspire to control the entire West. Constantine, who was his brother-in-law, had put Maximian to death for complicity in plots against himself, and Maxentius, under pretext of avenging his father's MAXIMIL'IAN, FERDINAND, Emperor of Merec, death (about which he cared nothing), marched upon Gaul. was born 6th July, 1832. He was the brother of the Constantine came to the encounter, and it was on his Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. In 1857 he married march that he saw the vision of the cross, which promised the Princess Charlotte, daughter of King Leopold of him victory, and which converted him to Christianity. He Belgium. He entered the Austrian navy in 1846. He met Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, near Rome (Saxa was also for some time governor of the LombardoRubra), 27th October, 312; and a sanguinary conflict ended Venetian provinces. On the 10th April, 1864, he accepted in the total defeat of Maxentius and his death in the the crown of Mexico, which had been offered him by the river as he tried to cross into Rome by the bridge. His Mexicans in the previous October. The young emperor career is no doubt blackened by the flattery of Constan- and empress landed at Vera Cruz on the 24th of May, and tinian writers, but he stands before us in their pages as a made their entry into the capital of Mexico on the 24th monster of cruelty and lust, reigning only by virtue of im- June. For three years, supported by a large French force, mense bribes to the army. the emperor applied himself diligently to the organization of the empire. The remonstrances of the United States government-who had always been annoyed at the attempt made to found a new empire in such close proximity to their country-at last compelled the Emperor of the French to withdraw the troops which had really kept Maximilian on the throne. Maximilian refused to leave with them, although it was certain that a rebellion would immediately break out, headed by Juarez, the former president of the Mexican Republic. The event took place in February, 1867, and Maximilian gallantly placed himself at the head of his army to endeavour to quell the rising. He was, however, treacherously betrayed into the hands of his enemies at Queretaro, and after a trial by court-martial was shot on the 19th June. The sad fate of the empress, who had returned to Europe in the previous year, and now quite lust

MAXIM'IAN (Maximianus), Emperor of Rome from A.D. 286 to 305, was born in Pannonia (Western Hungary), of humble parents. His full name was Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus. His military abilities were so great that he quickly attracted the notice of the Emperor Diocletian, which far-seeing man, recognizing that the vast overgrown empire needed a soldier for its master, created this man first Cæsar (285), and then full emperor in conjunction with himself (286). Maximian was set to rule the Western Empire, more exposed to the onslaughts of the barbarians, while Diocletian governed the East. Still the empire seemed unsafe, and in 292 Constantius Chlorus and Galerius were proclaimed Cæsars (vice-emperors), ruling Gaul with Britain and Spain, and Illyria and the Danube frontier respectively. When Diocletian resolved to abdicate

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her reason, completed one of the most tragic stories of modern times. At the earnest solicitation of his brother, the Emperor of Austria, the remains of Maximilian were given up to the commander of an Austrian frigate, and brought to Vienna for interment.

MAXIMILIA'NA is a genus of PALMS, natives of tropical America. Humboldt described them in glowing terns:-"Nature has lavished every beauty of form on the Jagua palm.... Its smooth, slender trunks, rising to between 64 and 75 feet, appear above the dense mass of flage of other kinds of trees, from amidst which they sing like raised colonnades, their airy summits contrasting beautifully with the thickly-leaved species of Ceiba, and with the forests of Laurineæ, Calophyllum, and ferent species of Amyris, which surround them. Its raves-few in number, scarcely so many as seven or eight -se almost vertically into the air; their extremities are cried like plumes, the ultimate divisions, having only a tin grass-like parenchyma, flutter lightly and airily round the slowly-balancing midrib of the leaves." Spruce gives the length of a leaf as 34 feet, and says that there were axt a thousand fruits clustered on one stalk (spadix), Sing a load for two men. The spathe, which incloses the padix in the young state, becomes woody, and is used Indians as baskets, and even as vessels in which to is their meat. The fruit, which is of a brownish colour, aten by the natives, as well as by monkeys and birds. cntains a single stony seed, and these are used as fuel Boke and dry the India-rubber when fresh from the tree. MAX IMIN was the name of two emperors of Rome. Te first was Caius Julius Verus Maximinus, a barbarian, As father being a Goth and his mother a German.

MAY.

emperor, who reigned a few months in the year 455; he assassinated Valentinian III., and married his widow. The latter invited Genseric and his Vandals to invade Italy, and on his doing so Maximus was slain during a retreat.

There was also a Maximus (M. Clodius Pupienus Maximus) who was emperor by decree of the Senate for a short time in 238; and another of this name who temporarily assumed the title in 408, and again in 418. His second attempt cost him his life.

He

MAX WELL, JAMES CLERK, a distinguished modern physicist, was born at Edinburgh in 1831. was educated at the Academy and University of Edinburgh, and in 1850 went to Cambridge, where in 1854 he took his degree as second wrangler. In 1856 he became professor of natural philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1860 he was appointed professor of physics and astronomy in King's College, London. This position he resigned in 1868, but in 1871 he was made the first professor of experimental physics at Cambridge. He died 1879.

As a scientific discoverer and mathematician Maxwell must be placed in the first rank of the men of his time, and his researches extend to nearly all the branches of physical science. In 1859 he gained the Adams prize for a paper on the "Stability of Saturn's Rings," and for his investigations in relation to the perception of colour he received the Rumford medal in 1860. As an experimenter and mathematician he did more than any other modern investigator to establish the kinetic theory of gases, and he published in 1871 his celebrated book on the "Theory of Heat," which has become a standard work upon the subject, and has already passed through several editions. He also d from 235 to 238. He was noticed for his enormous issued an elementary treatise on "Matter and Motion" in gth and stature (said to be 8 feet) at some military 1877, a work displaying great originality and power in the ts by the Emperor Septimius Severus, was enlisted in handling of these subjects; but his highest powers were body-guard, and rose to high command by the emperor's devoted to the study of electricity, and it is in connection acy. On the death of the Emperor Alexander Severus, with this subject that his greatest achievements were acYamin was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers (A.D. 235).complished. Starting with the ideas suggested by Faraday He proved a mere brute, unable to rule, but able to tyrannize #oppress. The Gordians, father and son, were acknowas emperors by the Senate, and when Maximin ed against the senatorial forces his own soldiers sinated him (238).

He

The second Maximin was one of the colleagues of stantine in the empire. His name was Daza, but on g adopted by his uncle, the Cæsar Galerius (afterwards ), he took the name of Galerius Valerius Maxi. He had been a shepherd, but rose rapidly to great ary commands. He was created Cæsar by his uncle of his accession to the empire in 305, and was made his e in the empire in 308. Galerius died 311, and Main divided the Eastern Empire with Licinius. He raced the latter's territory during his absence at Rome, bet tas provoked the return of Licinius, and Maximin lost thene and his life. He was a cruel voluptuary, and a hed anti-Christian.

MAXIMUS, the most famous of the families of the Fat Fabian gens of republican Rome. See FABIAN

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MAXIMUS, Emperor of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, *** 383 to 388, was by birth a Spaniard, and was named Ma Clemens Maximus. He was serving in Britain, was proclaimed emperor by his troops, 383. He ated and put to death the Emperor Gratian in Gaul. asins, emperor of the East, accepted his claim to are, and gave him Britain, Gaul, and Spain, while Vantinian ruled Italy. Maximus, determined to be sole of the West, advanced against Italy and drove out val Theodosius upon this set out with a large army, Maximus prisoner at Aquileia at the head of the Atric Sea, and put him to death A.D. 388.

MAXIMUS, PETRONIUS, was the name of another Roman,

he passed on to new and original investigations of his own, and in 1873 he gave the results to the world in his great treatise on "Electricity and Magnetism," a work which will for ever associate his name with the study of these sciences. In this occurs his celebrated theory accounting at once for the phenomena of light, electricity, and magnetism by modes of motion propagated through a medium of a certain definite mechanical construction. In private life he was a man of a generous and lovable disposition, and a sincere and devout Christian. A memoir, written by his friend Professor Campbell, was published in 1885, with a selection from his works.

MAY, the fifth month of our present year, was the third in that of Romulus, and the fifth in the calendar of Numa Pompilius. It consisted of thirty-one days in the calendar of Romulus; and of thirty in that of Numa. Julius Cæsar restored to it the odd day of which Numa had deprived it, and of which it still keeps possession. It is Maius, the growth month, a form of the word of which the Aryan root is MAGH, with the meaning of power, the classical root being Mag (as magnus, great, &c.), and the Teutonic mah (as mah-ta, might, &c.)

May-day, the first day of May, was formerly celebrated in England with many rites, such as pulling off branches of trees, adorning them with nosegays and crowns of flowers, dancing round a pole decked with garlands, &c. The Roman youths used always to spend May-day in the fields dancing and singing, with garlands and flowers, in honour of Flora, to whom the month was specially devoted. We ourselves have at least one semi-religious May-day observance, for it is a time-honoured custom at Oxford for the choristers to ascend at early morn to the top of the noble Magdalen Tower, and from thence usher in the spring on May-day with a short choral service.

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But the milkmaids' May-day dance round a trophy of rudeness of address, an honest but obstinate adherence to plate with their garlanded pails one mass of flowers, the old usages, and a consequent aversion to improvements. The Jack-in-the-green of the chimney-sweepers, and such soil in the arrondissement of Château-Gontier, and in part secular jollities have now almost disappeared, along with the of that of Laval, is productive in bread-stuffs of all kinds; sweet old superstition of bathing the face in May-day dew, and sufficient corn for home consumption is raised. Meadow as a cosmetic to gain or to enhance beauty. A divination land is scanty, nevertheless a great number of beasts are by snails on May-day was, until lately, practised in the fed, which form a source of considerable profit to the country, the track of the animal being examined to form farmer. Flax, hemp, and fruit trees are extensively grown, letters from it in answer to questions put. A very interest- and the vine is cultivated to a small extent, but the wine ing fire-ceremony (now practically extinct), formerly uni- made is of inferior quality. Cider and perry are extensively versal in Scotland on May-day, is described in the article made. The forests furnish timber for the navy. WellBELTEIN. In England the beautiful custom of the May-wooled sheep, pigs, and fowls are numerous. Bees are pole with its tall garlanded and decorated shaft, stowed kept in great numbers. away the rest of the year under the eaves of the houses upon hooks and set up on May-day, was never omitted in the middle ages. The Puritans, to whom we owe the loss of so many of our public games, and so much of our merriment, ordered all May-poles to be destroyed by Act of Parliament in 1644, as "a heathenish vanity, abused to superstition and wickedness," and fined the constables 5s. weekly as long as they stood. Morris-dancing, masquerading, mock tournaments with hobby-horses, and the more orderly dancing of youths and maidens all centred round the May-pole of the parish on May-day.

MAY HILL SANDSTONES are the basal beds of the Upper Silurian formation. They have been so named from the locality where their typical development occursMay Hill in Gloucestershire; here they rest unconformably on Cambrian rocks, but in some other sections their equivalents-the Upper Llandovery beds-succeed quite conformably the uppermost member of the Cambro-Silurian formation, namely, the Lower Llandovery beds.

MAYA'CEÆ, a small order of plants, belonging to the MONOCOTYLEDONS, cohort Commelinales. There are only seven species, natives of America, prostrate leafy herbs, creeping in damp woods or floating in fresh water. The flowers are inconspicuous, and arranged in terminal heads. The perianth consists of six parts, the three outer being green, the three inner of a white, pink, or violet colour. There are three stamens; and the ovary is onecelled, with three parietal placentas and numerous orthotropous ovules. The seed has a small embryo in farinaceous albumen.

MAY-APPLE (Podophyllum peltatum) of North America, is a useful plant, with an agreeable fruit, but the leaves are poisonous and the root-stock cathartic. It is chiefly cultivated for the sake of the active medicinal properties of the root-stocks. The extract is considered a valuable substitute for mercurials, acting as powerfully as mercury, without its evil consequences. The May-apple has a large, white, nodding flower, stamens twice as many as the petals, and a yellowish fruit, called "wild lemon," with the seeds attached to one side.

MAYENCE. See MAINZ.

Rivers. The department belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Loire, and is drained chiefly by the Mayenne (the ancient Meduana), which rises in the west of the department of Orne, and running nearly south past the towns of Mayenne, Laval, and Château-Gontier, divides the departinent of Mayenne into two pretty equal parts. It afterwards flows through MAINE-ET-LOIRE, and joins the Loiret on the right, near Angers. The total length of its course is 100 miles, for the last 45 of which it is navigable.

The department is traversed by the railway from Paris to Brest, which passes through Laval.

Industry.-Iron mines are worked for the supply of some smelting furnaces and forges. There are coal mines near Laval. Marble, granite, flint, building and lime stone, and slate are quarried. White sand, used in the manufacture of glass, is raised. Linen spinning and weaving are the chief manufactures; cotton stuffs, haircloth, linen thread. and paper are made.

The climate is healthy, and resembles that of the south of England. The department is divided into the three arrondissements-Laval, Mayenne, and Château-Gontier. The capital is LAVAL,

MAY-FLY is the name given to the common English species of the family of insects Ephemerida, which belongs to the order NEUROPTERA, and finds its nearest allies in the dragon-flies (Libellulidæ).

The May-flies or Ephemeride are beautiful delicate insects, with a long, soft, tapering body, and large, deli cately-veined fore wings. The hind wings are small, and sometimes altogether absent. The antennæ are short and awl-shaped, composed of three points, the last of which is long and bristle-like. The mouth is so imperfectly devel oped, the jaws being membranous in texture, that no food can be taken in the perfect state. The legs are slender, the anterior pair being much elongated in the male; the tarsi are composed of four or five joints. The last segment of the abdomen bears two or three very long slender, many-jointed bristles.

The May-flies, when they have attained their final stage of metamorphosis and perfect form, are among the most fleeting of living creatures, existing often only a few hours, MAYENNE, a department in France, is bounded N. and propagating their species before they die. In this by the departments of Manche and Orne, E. by the depart-state they sometimes appear suddenly in myriads, during ment of Sarthe, S. by Maine-et-Loire, and W. by Ille-etVilaine. It approaches in shape to a rectangle, 51 miles long by 40 wide. The area is 1996 square miles, and the population in 1882 was 351,933.

Surface and Products.-The surface of the department is strewed with hills, and in some places cut up by valleys and ravines. From a distance the country has the appearance of a vast forest, such is the number of trees planted in the hedgerows that inclose each field. The population of Lower Maine does not, as is the case in most parts of France, live in hamlets or villages, but is scattered among isolated farmhouses, each of which stands among thick hedges, and contains a family that is supplied with every necessary of life, both of food and clothing, from the land and their own industry. This isolated and independent existence has left its impress on the people in a certain

fine summer evenings, by the water-side, where they may be seen flitting about and balancing themselves in the air. The whole of this brief existence they spend on the wing, taking no food. The larval existence, however. lasts for two or three years. The larvæ have a long, flat body, long hair-like antennæ, and strong sickle-shaped jaws. The abdomen ends in moderately long feathery bristles, and its sides are fringed with expansions, serving the purpose of gills. The larvae, in some cases, live freely in the water of ponds and streams, while others make furrows in the mud. They feed partly on living prey, partly on decaying animal or vegetable matter. They undergo numerous moults, acquiring more and more the structure of the perfect insect, so that the pupal condition is not sharply marked off from the larval; the number of these moults amounts sometimes to as many as twenty,

MAYNOOTH.

The stage that succeeds is remarkable. The May-fly, on first emerging from the pupal case, has its large wings free and capable of use, but they and the whole of the body are covered with an exceedingly delicate skin which conceals the true colour of the perfect insect. This subimago, as it is called, flies to some attachment, as a wall or the trunk or branches of a tree. Shortly the skin splits, the May-fly appears in its full beauty and flies away, leaving its ghost, as it were, clinging by its legs to the resting-place, the tail-bristles extended, and the wings shrivelled. The May-flies are widely distributed through the temperate regions of the world. The species are numerous, and are divided into genera according to the number of wings and the setæ, or bristle-like appendages to the abdomen. Thus the genus Ephemera has four wings and three seta; Baetis has four wings and two sets; and Cloëon has two wings and two setæ. These setæ are of great use to the little insect in steering its way through the air whilst performing its beautifully undulating flight. The Common May-fly (Ephemera vulgata) is the trout-fly of anglers, the sub-imago being called by them the Green Drake, and the imago or perfect insect the Gray Drake. MAYNOOTH, a village of Ireland, in the county of Kildare, situated on the Royal Canal and the Great Western Railway, 14 miles W.N.W. of Dublin. Its only importance arises from the Roman Catholic College of St. Patrick, founded 1795 by the Irish parliament, and endowed by an annual grant of £26,000 by the imperial legislature. On the disestablishment of the Anglican episcopal church in Ireland in 1871 this endowment was abolished, with all other ecclesiastical endowments in Ireland; but fourteen years' purchase (£364,000) was paid to the college in one sum in lieu of the grant, on the principle of compensating life interests.

MAYO, a maritime county of the province of Connaught, in Ireland, is bounded E. by Sligo and Roscommon, S. by Galway, and W. and N. by the Atlantic Ocean. Its greatest length E. to W. is 65 miles; its greatest breadth N. to &. is 75 miles. The area is 2060 square miles, or 1,318,129 acres. The population in 1881 was 245,212.

The coast-line, 250 miles in length, is indented with the Bays of Killala, Broadhaven, and Blacksod (the two last being separated from each other by the narrow isthmus of Belmullet), the entrance into the peninsula of the Mullet, Tulloghane Bay, Clew Bay (studded with numerous islets), and the Killeries. Near the coast are the islands of Achill, Clare, Inishturk, Inishbofin, and numerous other islets The surface is of every character; much mountain and waste, and much level and fertile land. The summits of Mailrea, Nephin, and Croagh Patrick are 2680, 2530, and 2870 feet above high sea-level; on the summit of the last is a chapel dedicated to St. Patrick.

The soil is mostly light, and with the moist climate better suited to grazing than tillage. The subsoil in the level parts is limestone; in the others red sandstone, mica slate, granite, and quartz, iron ore abounds, but remains unwrought for want of fuel; there are several valuable slate and marble quarries. Lakes Conn, Curragh, Cullen, Castlebar, Carramore Frogh, and some smaller ones, are within the county; those of Mask and Corrib border it on the south. The occupations are agriculture and fishing; pasturage is more sttended to than tillage. The linen manufacture formerly flourished, but has declined. The salmon fishery on the Moy and the other rivers of the county is very considerable. The breeds of cattle and sheep are generally improved. The chief crops are oats, flax, and potatoes.

The only navigable river in the county is the Moy, which is one of the finest rivers of Ireland. There are no canals. Many good roads have been constructed during the present century, and the Midland Great Western Railway traverses part of the county. The coast fishery employs several thousand fishermen. Turbot, sole, cod, ling, hake, haddock,

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plaice, oysters, lobsters, and herrings are caught. Under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, Mayo returns four members to the House of Commons. Castlebar is the chief town.

The antiquities of the county are chiefly ecclesiastical. There are round towers at Killala, Turlogh, Meelick, and Balla. At Cong are the remains of a splendid abbey, originally founded in the seventh century. At Ballyhaunis are the ruins of a largely-endowed abbey, founded by the family of Nangle. Very fine remains of a Franciscan friary at Moyne, founded by William de Burgh, are still standing. Rosserk Abbey, in the same neighbourhood, built by the Joyces in the fifteenth century, is another very striking ruin. The remains of Ballintubber Abbey, 7 miles from Ballinrobe, are among the most elegant specimens of early architecture in Ireland. Numerous other remains of religious houses founded by the families of De Burgh, O'Malley, and Nangle are found throughout the county. The military antiquities are not in general of much extent or interest. Carrig-a-Nile, Doona Castle, Inver Castle, and Doonbriste Castle are the principal.

MAY'O, RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, EARL, Viceroy of India, was the sixth Lord Mayo, and was born in Dublin in 1822. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and entered Parliament in 1847 in the Conservative interest as one of the members for the county of Kildare. He afterwards represented Coleraine and Cockermouth. He was three times chief secretary for Ireland under Lord Derby, in 1852, 1858, and 1866.

Lord Mayo was a popular and influential member of the Lower House, and he showed considerable capacity for public business in his administration of Irish affairs. He amply justified his nomination as viceroy of India in 1868, and proved himself an able and popular governor-general. It fell to his lot to encourage the development of the railway and telegraph systems, and to preside at the opening of those very lines to which Lord Dalhousie looked forward so earnestly and so confidently as the material guarantees of our dominion in Asia; and in the encouragement of education and of commercial and mining enterprise he could not well be surpassed. He was assassinated by a Mohammedan convict at Port Blair, in the Andaman Islandswhere he had proceeded on a tour of official inspection-on 8th February, 1872. A sum of £20,000, and an annuity of £1000 per annum, was granted by Parliament to his widow for the benefit of herself and her family. ("Life of Earl Mayo," by W. W. Hunter, B.A., 1875.)

MAYOR. See MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS. MAZARIN, JULES, CARDINAL, Prime Minister of France in succession to Richelieu, was an Italian. His real name was Giulio Mazzarino. He was born at Rome in 1602, studied in Spain at Alcola and Salamanca, entered the papal army in 1622, and showed his ability in the negotiations leading to the peace of Monçon, 1626. He was invited to become secretary to the Cardinal Sacchetti, and in this office was largely concerned in effecting a peace between the French and Spaniards (treaty of Cherasco, 1631), during the preliminaries of which he became acquainted with Louis XIII. of France, and with Cardinal Richelieu and Barberini. The latter took a great fancy to the astute young diplomatist, and presented him to the Pope. A brilliant success in 1632 as legate at Avignon (the papal territory in France) was followed by his nomination as nuncio-extraordinary to Paris, November, 1634. He became a naturalized French subject in 1639, and was sent ambassador to Savoy by Richelieu in 1640, where he achieved such great results for France that the all-powerful minister requested a cardinal's hat for him, and began to look to him as his probable successor. When Richelieu followed to the grave, in 1642, Maria de' Medici, the queenmother whom he had (perhaps deservedly) driven from France to die almost in indigence at Cologne, the feeble

MAZARIN.

Louis XIII. looked to Mazarin as the only possible successor to his late master-subject. The king himself died the next year, and Mazarin found himself named as one of the council of regency of the boy-king Louis XIV., then five years old. He at once threw himself into the party of the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, aided her to induce the parlement of Paris to annul the council in favour of herself as regent, and was rewarded by being chosen as the queen's prime minister. Henceforward, and until his death in 1661, Mazarin was practically king of France, except during

1651 and 1652.

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Mazarin's reign of power opened brilliantly with the victories of the great Condé-Rocroi, Fribourg, Nordlingen, and Sens. Austria, quite beaten, hastily agreed to the peace of Münster or of Westphalia in 1648, and the bloodstained epoch of the Thirty Years' War had closed. Spain alone continued the contest. Perhaps Mazarin allowed his triumph to show too manifestly. He had a wonderful suppleness and mastery of intrigue, and veiled under a mask of quiet humility as autocratic views as those of Richelieu. The veil being partly withdrawn, and the aristocracy being no longer awed by the wonderful mastery of their late tyrant, they rose against his successor, whose modes of action they despised, and whose real genius they misunderstood and vastly underrated. France split into Mazarins and Frondeurs (malcontents), and Matthieu Molé, the judicious president of the Frondeur parlement of Paris, endeavoured in vain to quiet the rapidly growing storm. At last the queen, supported by Condé and his troops, released by the peace, withdrew to St. Germain and raised her standard. The troops advanced on the capital. The parlement and the Frondeur nobles raised troops on their side and began the War of the Fronde with an edict declaring Mazarin a public enemy, and ordering him to quit France within eight days (January, 1649). A temporary peace was patched up in March. Condé now began to waver in his loyalty: the cardinal thought he saw his opportunity, arrested Condé, and also the great Frondeur chiefs, the Prince de Conti and Duc de Longueville, January, 1650. But he quickly found that the great mass of the people was against him, and the royal cause failing on every side. The wily Italian bent to the storm, himself released the princes, and went into exile to Brühl, in the territory of the Elector of Cologne, whence he still directed the counsels of the queen in a most masterly and crafty manner (March, 1651). As he foresaw, the Fronde soon fell asunder of itself, through the violent animosities and jealousies of its turbulent chiefs. Finally Condé took up arms on his own account against the queen. This brought about a rush of loyal feeling, and Mazarin was at once recailed by Anne of Austria (January, 1652). He returned in triumph, and with an army of 7000 or 8000 men. The queen had acted too quickly. Again the cardinal had to retire, in August, 1652; not to return till February, 1653, but this time he returned for good.

It was at this time that Cromwell, just declared Lord Protector of England, approached Mazarin with the view of withdrawing the French support from the English princes Charles and James, sons of the late King Charles I. This he obtained at the price of lending France a fleet and 6000 soldiers against Spain. Philip IV. had to own he was vanquished, the peace of the Pyrenees was signed in the midst of the river Bidassoa, 7th November, 1659, the Spanish princess, Maria Theresa (of the house of Austria), was married to the young king Louis XIV., and the latter renounced all French claims that might thence accrue thereafter upon the crown of Spain; a false promise, whose breach later on led to the wars of the Spanish Succession.

This was Mazarin's last and greatest achievement. Absolute master of the kingdom, possessor of a colossal fortune, which some authors allege amounted to 50,000,000 livres (worth in money of the present day about £4,000,000), he

MAZZINI.

lived but a short time longer, dying at Vincennes, 9th March, 1661. Shortly before his death he handed to the king a deed of gift of his whole property. Louis nobly accepted it and returned it, as the arch-intriguer expected. Thus confirmed in his ill-gotten wealth, he could safely provide brilliantly for his five nieces, the ladies Mancini, with one of whom (Maria Mancini) the king had been desperately in love, and whom he would have married if the wiser cardinal had not himself pushed aside the perilous honour. Mazarin had been more successful with his own fortune than with that of the state. He left France very crippled in her resources, but absolutely at the feet of an absolute monarchy. The genius of Colbert restored order to the finances, and that of Louis XIV. knew how to make an autocratic despotism splendidly brilliant-for a time. Mazarin, by the systematic union of grinding taxation with a costly irresponsible government, was certainly one of the founders of the great French Revolution of a century and a quarter later. The queen-dowager survived her faithful friend and minister by five years, dying in 1666. It has always been one of the great puzzles of history to know whether or not Mazarin was actually married to the queen. There is a large body of conjectural evidence on the point which certainly appears to have weight.

Mazarin's letters were published in 1745; and his figure fills the well-known brilliant memoirs which at that time it was happily the fashion to write. De Retz, his great rival, La Rochefoucauld, Grammont, and others are the sources, as full of wit as of scandal, whence one learns to admire and despise this wily Italian chief of intriguers,

MAZEP PA, IVAN STEPHAN ́OVICH, Hetman (that is, commander-in-chief) of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, has become celebrated by a poem of Lord Byron, which has for its subject the legend of his extraordinary adventure. He was the son of a Polish gentleman in Podolia. The famous story of his arrival among the Cossacks on the back of a wild horse, to which he had been bound by the husband of a woman whom he had seduced, has, however, been superseded by the contemporary memoirs of Passek, which state that he retired among the Cossacks overwhelmed with share at his exposure in his native land. He was born about 1610 in Podolia, was educated at court, and had been page to John Casimir, king of Poland. His military talent as displayed at the head of the Cossacks obtained for him the title of Hetman. His submission to the Czar of Muscovy, and his secret league with Charles XII. of Sweden, are matters of history. He died in Turkey, whither he had retreated after the battle of Pultowa, about 1709.

MAZUR KA, a national Polish dance. Originally t was a song accompanying dancing. About the middle of the eighteenth century the dance spread into Germany, and after another century reached England, where for a time it was very popular. Its music is always in triple time, usually 3-4, and in sections of eight bars, each section generally repeated. The dance itself is rarey danced purely out of Poland, for the dancers are limited to four couples (or sometimes eight), and the figures are txt only very variable, but fresh ones are frequently developed extempore by skilful dancers as the dance progresses.

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The dance, even the modified form to which it was de graded to suit English tastes, is now almost extinct in this country; one of its steps alone surviving in the "P Mazurka," but the music as a dance-form" has bee rendered immortal by Chopin. His mazurkas are a more fascinating than his waltzes. He wove old Posa airs into them, and while preserving the studied simplicity appropriate to the style, he enriched them with sable harmonies and every refinement of grace and expression. More perfect musical gems have never yet been set.

MAZZI NI, JOSEPH, or, to give him his Italian name, Giuseppe, was born at Genoa, 22nd June, 1805, where his father was a physician of note and of good private means.

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