MARIANNE ISLANDS.

parts of which each of those powers laid claim. Maria Theresa, in spite of these heavy odds, supported by the etaustastic efforts of the Hungarians, to whom she appealed, made good her claim as their queen, but she lost beavily in other parts of her dominions. Frederick II. of Prussia took the whole of Silesia, and more than once had Bemia almost in his grasp; Spain and Naples denuded her of all her great Italian possessions; and France, Bavaria, and Saxony each gained at the expense of the hereditary Austrian monarchy. England came to the help of the distressed queen. She drove the French and Bavarians out of her kingdom, and her wonderful courage and astuteness stood ber in such stead that at the peace of Aix-la-Chapee which ended the War of the Austrian Succession (1748), she had finally lost only Silesia and the Italian duchies. Meanwhile, in 1745, her husband had been elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (Emperor of Germany), in succession to Charles VII. emperor and king of Bohemia. From 1756 to 1763 raged the terrible Seven Years' War which nearly ruined both Austria and Prussia, but this was the last danger of the empress. At the death of the Emperor Francis in 1765 her son Joseph was elected emper as Joseph II. As she had done with her husband, so also with her son, she associated him outwardly in the government of her hereditary dominions, but really never let go the reins of office. In 1772 she joined in the paref Poland with Prussia and Russia, a lasting disree to all three countries. Her political acts at home are *rtly of record. She abolished the torture, commuted th services which the Bohemian peasants owed to their faia superiors, put a stop to literary piracy, established a Local system of education, and made several important reforms in the temporalities of the clergy. She suppressed the Jesuits in 1773. She will ever rank among illustrious and the benefactors of mankind. She died at 29th November, 1780. Marie Antoinette of Frame was one of her daughters.

MARIANNE ISLANDS. See LADRONE ISLANDS. MARIE ANTOINETTE, Queen of France, born at VEL 2nd November, 1755, was the daughter of Francis of Larraine, emperor of Germany, and of Maria Theresa of At In May, 1770, she married Louis, the dauphin of France (grandson of Louis XV.), who in 1774 became King of France under the name of Louis XVI. When the Revelation began, Marie Antoinette was on the side of the more resolute aristocratic leaders, and would have opposed it vigorously. She was one of the advisers of the attempted flight of the king, which proved unsuccessful, and served to excite the public animosity against her and berbahand. During the various attacks made against Leyal family, she showed great courage. No one who reads the old memoirs of those times could imagine that the rudy, tighty, extravagant queen, whose good name even was not always above suspicion, as is seen in the public peption of the affair of the DIAMOND NECKLACE, and at star times-though it may have been that the suspicions without real foundation-would become the heroic regn, the tender mother, and the uncomplaining wife, might almost say the sainted martyr of the Revolution. Nither history nor fiction shows a more startling and pected change than this. The queen who as a girl taght it not unqueenly to play romps and hide-and-seek w the gentlemen of the court in the gardens of Marly and Versales, seems not the same woman who in a few years faces the mob dauntlessly, with hair blanched te by many tribulations. The people were quick to Petrate the secret of the king's nullity which she so dey tried to guard; it was with her that Mirabeau and Data intrigued, not with Louis; it was her rather than the king at whom the sansculottes raged, and whom they aly saght to defile with insults. Her demeanour under the most trying circumstances never lost its dignity. After

MARIGOLD.

the death of her husband, she seemed for a time forgotten in the prison of the Temple; but she was brought to trial before the revolutionary tribunal 14th October, 1793, found guilty, and condemned to death. In the presence of her judges, the burst of indignant maternal feeling with which she appealed to any mothers present, when an infamous and absurd charge was brought against her, overawed even her accusers.

On 16th October, 1793, she was removed in a common cart from the prison of the Conciergerie to the place of execution. On her way she was reviled and abused by the ferocious mob in the most unfeeling manner, but appeared heedless of their vociferations, and suffered death with firmness and composure. She was thirty-eight years of age, but owing to her sufferings she bore a much older appearance. She left one son, who died in prison (Louis XVII.), and a daughter, afterwards Duchess of Angoulême. See especially her attendant, Madame Campan's, Memoirs of her, an excellent edition of which appeared in an English dress in 1883.

MARIE GALANTE, an island in the Caribbean Sea, about 15 miles south of Guadeloupe, of circular form and about 14 miles in diameter, was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and received its name from that of his ship. It was first settled by the French in 1647. The surface is of moderate elevation, and rises gradually towards the north; the western coast is low. The soil is productive, and yields abundantly the several West Indian products. Population, about 14,000. It still belongs to France.

MARI'ENBAD, a favourite watering-place of Bohemia, situated in a beautiful triangular valley, 32 miles N. W. of Pillau, 2000 feet above the sea, in the midst of pine woods. It has a theatre, kurhaus, and a Roman Catholic and an English church. Its chief baths are cold and saline, containing glauber salts. The Abbey of Fehl is 9 miles east, with a valuable library, but it is not otherwise interesting.

MARI ENWER'DER, a town of Germany, the capital of a government of the same name in West Prussia, is situated on the Liebe and the Little Nogat, 2 miles from the Vistula, over which there is a pontoon bridge 2700 feet in length. It has 9000 inhabitants. It has a cathedral, with a steeple 170 feet in height; schools of art and agriculture; and an hospital for blind soldiers. It is the seat of the provincial courts and the government offices. There are manufactories of woollens, hats, soap, and leather. The breweries and distilleries are very considerable. The town is one of the most beautiful and prosperous in West Prussia.

MARIGNA'NO, now called Melegnano, about 10 miles from Milan, was the site of the famous battle in 1515 where Francis I. of France won the Milanese from the Italians and Swiss. It was also the scene of a French victory over the Austrians, 8th July, 1859. The important treaty between Guelfs and Ghibellines in 1279 was signed at this place.

MAR'IGOLD, or POT MARIGOLD, is a flower (Calendula officinalis) belonging to the order COMPOSITE. The English name is simply Mary's Gold, while the botanical name, Calendula, is derived from the Calends, or first of every month, as different kinds blossom every month in the year. The marigold is an old inhabitant of our gardens, for it was introduced from its native haunts in the south of Europe in 1573. The florets were at one time used as a carminative, and are even still used in some parts of the country as an ingredient of soups. The fruits ("seeds ") are much curved, with remarkable projections on the back. The French Marigold (Tagetes patula) and the African Marigold (Tagetes erecta) are both natives of Mexico, and were introduced at about the same time as the common marigold. The French marigold has become so thoroughly naturalized everywhere, that it has been sent home as a wild plant from the interior of the island of Timor. The scientific name dedicates the genus to a Tuscan deity,

MARIUS, CAIUS, seven times consul of Rome, was bern of humble parents at Arpinum, about B.C. 157. He served at the siege of Numantia, B.C. 134, under Scipio Africanus, together with Jugurtha, where he highly distiguished himself. In B.C. 119 he was elected tribune of the plebeians, in which office he showed himself a most determined enemy to the patrician order. He obtained the peatership with difficulty, in consequence of the opposition of the patricians, who accused him of having used bribery. Marias married Julia, an aunt of Julius Cæsar.

In B.C. 109 he accompanied Metellus into Africa in the capacity of legatus (second in command); and by his pradence and courage in the war with Jugurtha he added greatly to his military reputation. His friends at Rome pesaded the people that the war with Jugurtha would teer be concluded until the command was given to Marius. Metels with some difficulty allowed his lieutenant leave of absence to go to Rome in order to stand for the consulMarius obtained that dignity (B.C. 107) and the drection of the Jugurthine War. In the following year (106) he obtained possession of Jugurtha, who was therously given up by Bocchus to his quæstor Sulla. See JUGURTIA.

The news of the defeat of the Consul Manilius and the Procesal Capio by the Teutones and Cimbri (B.C. 105) rased the greatest consternation at Rome, and Marius was elected consul during his absence in Africa. He eted upon his second consulship B.C. 104, and was hosen consul in the two following years (B.c. 103, 11, the dreaded enemies being expected at any moment return from their raid into Spain, and Marius being the reader who was held capable of meeting the shock of the slaught whenever it should at last come upon Italy. It's fourth consulship (B.C. 102), he defeated the Teuand Ambrones, near Aquæ Sextiæ (Aix) in Gaul; the following year, B.C. 101, having been re-elected the Efth time, joined his forces with those of Catullus, 3d entirely defeated the Cimbri in the plain of Vercellæ Verre situated to the north of the Po.

Marins was once more a candidate for the consulship fr the following year; but the fear of the Gallic invasion was removed, and he was opposed by the patrician party. He nevertheless obtained the dignity, in great part owing the exertions of Saturninus, the tribune. At the exata of his consulship he left Rome; but in B.C. 90 the Marian or Social War broke out, in which Marius and a were engaged as legati to the two consuls. But sorted, it is said, with the increasing reputation of a. Marins resigned his command before the conclusion

The Marsian struggle had scarcely been brought to an * before a war broke out between these two great rivals. Te estduct of the Mithradatic campaign had been assigned Salla, who was now consul (B.C. 88); but his opponent Send every effort to wrest it from him. He was warmly mrted by P. Sulpicius, the tribune, and a law was assed in the assembly of the people that the command d be taken from Sulla and given to their old favourite Sala was with the army at the time besieging a; but as soon as he heard of the law, he determined * resist so unjust a decree, gathered his forces, marched , and Marius and his adherents were obliged to the city. Marius escaped with the greatest difficulty Afra, at one time being taken prisoner, and actually my from assassination only by his terrible look and awe that clung around him and struck his executioner

MARIVAUX, PIERRE CARLET DE CHAMBLAIN DE (really plain Pierre Carlet only), was born at Paris, in 1688. He wrote some dramas, but his celebrity rests upon his clever romances. Of these the greatest is "Marianne," which is the origin of our Richardson's "Pamela." This procured Marivaux a seat in the Academy in 1742. He was the first to attempt analysis of character in a novel with any set purpose and effect. He died at Paris in 1763.

MAR JORAM (Origanum) is a genus of plants belonging to the order LABIATE. They are aromatic herbs, and some of the species are used medicinally and for seasoning purposes. Common Marjoram (Origanum vulgare) is a native of the British Isles, Europe, and Western Asia, as far as India. This species, together with the cultivated Sweet Marjoram (Origanum Majorana), was used by the Greeks both internally and in fomentations, as an antidote to narcotic poisons. Before the use of hops in beer, marjoram was employed as well as ground ivy, and even now it is used to give a flavour to table beer. Minute oil vesicles may be seen in the leaf, and, on distillation, oil of marjoram collects in the still, which differs from oil of thyme in its bright yellow colour and its perfume, which is more like that of peppermint.

MARK, the system of tenure of land among the ancient Teutonic peoples, including the English. Long before the Norman Conquest, however, there was in England a gradual verging towards feudal tenure, so that the feudal system was introduced here without any very striking revolution by William the Conqueror.

The mark system considered the whole mark (or march) or community as one great occupier of the tract of land which supported it. The meare (Old English) was strictly, according to the derivation of the word, the "border" of this land (compare the Latin marg-o, and other like words in kindred languages), but was used for its whole surface. In ancient times, while yet the English lived on the Continent, and for some time after the conquest of Britain, the arable land of the mark belonging to the whole tribe was allotted annually, or in some cases triennially, to owners of homesteads to be tilled until the fallow time, and the pasture and waste land was held in common by all families. As agriculture improved the mark system became impossible; for a good farmer reaped no benefit as to favourable tenure over his less competent fellow markmen; and the English conquest, with its opportunities of fresh arrangements, gave occasion for a tolerably swift change. The system failed to take root, and in a comparatively brief time individual ownership of land was rather the rule than the exception in England. After a century or two the possession of land was actually essential to the rank of a freeman. Yet the mark system left its traces; thus the English township was a relic of the mark itself, and the old custom of sowing a third of a farm with spring crops, a third with autumn crops, and letting a third lie fallow, pointed to the old division among the markmen, the kinship of the tribe, and their common wergild or blood-money payable by the whole for the crime of the one, &c.

sold; so that however defective the title of the vendor may be, that acquired by the vendee is perfect, even where the property belongs to a person who is under legal disability, as an infant, a married woman, an idiot, or a person in prisen or beyond sea. Even stolen goods when they are purchased honestly in open market pass with an indefease title, except where the true owner prosecutes the thief and obtains a conviction, in which case the property reverts to him. In the city of London every shop is market-overt for goods usually sold there. The privilege af market-overt is unknown in the law of Scotland. When, therefore, goods have been sold in open market by one who tas stolen them, or by a person to whom they have been et the owner may recover them from the purchaser. Etern subject to the landlord's hypothec, if sold in bulk azarket-overt, is secured to the purchaser against the eperation of the hypothec.

A market is generally appointed to be held once, twice, three times in a week, for the current supply of comrodities, mostly of provisions. A large market held once twice a year is called a fair; and, according to Lord ke, a large fair held once a year is a mart. Fairs have all the legal incidents of markets, and are ted to further regulations by 2 Edward III. c. 15, of which requires that at the opening of the fair proaration be made of the time that it is to continue.

In Sectland the right to hold markets or fairs is vested in the crown, and no person or burgh can exercise it without awa grant either express or by prescription. What toll atom is leviable depends on statute or immemorial usage. MARKET-HARBOROUGH, a market-town of Eng, the county and 14 miles south-east of Leicester, and * from London by the Midland line. It stands on the back of the Welland, and has a Gothic church, a whall, a very convenient large corn exchange, and con12able manufactures of carpets and tanneries. MarketHarragh was the headquarters of Charles I. before his Get at Naseby. The population in 1881 was 5351. MARKING-NUT TREE (Semecarpus Anacardium) a tree belonging to the order ANACARDIACEÆ. It is a ve of India. Its unripe fruit is employed for making 4 and of ink, or, when pounded, a species of birdlime. by receptacle of the ripe fruit is yellow in colour. The tatives eat it roasted. A bitter corrosive juice is ed by the hard shell, which, when mixed with quicklime, as as an indelible marking ink for linen or cotton; or, dry, it may be used as a thick black varnish, mixed 1 pitch and tar, for caulking ships. This juice is very Fracies in removing warts. The seeds, called Malaccaker Marsh-nuts, are eaten, and they are said to quicken faculties of the mind. They supply an oil used in

MARL (Dutch, marghel, from margh, marrow, i.e., to farten or enrich land), an earthy substance found at various es under the soil, and extensively used for the iment of land. It consists of calcareous and argillaearth in various proportions, and as the former or the prevails, so it is beneficially employed on clays or There are several distinct sorts of marl-clay marl, Le mari, slate marl, and stone marl. The effect of marl tae same as that of clay and chalk upon sandy soils; on Lay sods its effect is proportioned to the quantity of areous earth which it contains. The peculiar advanof marl is its readily crumbling to powder by the of air and moisture.

Malis cften found very near the surface, so as to mix the soil in ploughing; but unless there be a sufficient of soil above, its presence does not indicate great ty. It is generally best when found at a moderate th, so as to be readily dug out and carted on the ada lards. Marl, when put fresh upon the land, requires wtime in order to become effective. It should there

MARLBOROUGH.

fore be laid on the surface and spread before winter, leaving it there for a considerable time before it is ploughed in. It is most advantageous to put it on the land when it is in grass, and to roll and harrow it repeatedly, in order to expose it to the effect of the air and rains. Alternate frosts and thaws greatly assist its pulverization.

An excellent use of marl is in forming composts with dung and peat earth. It is laid in layers with the dung and peat, and if the heap is well soaked with urine or the washings of stable-yards, it will in a short time become a most valuable manure for all kinds of soils.

Marl was in common use in England as a manure as early as the thirteenth century, and an Act passed in 1225 gave every man a right to sink a marl pit on his own land. Of late years lime has been often used instead of marl, as, owing to its bulkiness, the latter can only be used in the neighbourhood in which it is found.

Marl, in all its forms, is a calcareous clay, and in most cases is produced by the denudation of limestone rocks and deposition of the debris. Shell marl is a variety found in many lakes; it is produced from the shells of freshwater gasteropods.

MARL BOROUGH, a town and municipal borough of England, in the county of Wilts, situated on the Kennet. The town consists chiefly of one spacious street lined with houses irregularly built, the modern ones being of brick or stone, the older ones of timber, with quaintly carved fronts. The market-house is an ancient building, having in its upper storey a council-chamber, assembly-rooms, and court-house. There are two churches: St. Mary's, an old building, with a tower at the west end, and a Norman doorway; and St. Peter's, with a lofty square tower. The latter church was restored in 1863. Marlborough also contains several dissenting chapels, a free grammar-school, and various charities. The trade in malting, brewing, corn, coal, bacon, butter, and cheese, and rope and sacking manufactures, are in a prosperous condition. In 1843 a college was founded for sons of the clergy, which has become a flourishing public school, and educates between 500 and 600 boys. The building is handsome in design, and occupies the site of an ancient castle, where, in the reign of Henry III., was held the Parliament whose enactments were known as the Statutes of Marlbridge. The town gave the title of duke to the great victor of Blenheim and Ramilies. Near it is the celebrated Druidical monument similar to Stonehenge. [See AVEBURY.] The municipal borough is governed by four aldermen (of whom one is mayor) and twelve councillors. The population in 1881 was 3343. Marlborough was formerly a parliamentary borough, and returned two members to the House of Commons prior to 1867. It was then deprived of one, and lost the other under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885.

MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, DUKE OF, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire, on the 5th of July, 1650, of an old cavalier family which had suffered much in the Civil War for its attachment to the royal cause. After receiving the rudiments of education from a Devonshire clergyman, and a brief course of tuition at St. Paul's School, London, he procured, through the influence of his sister Arabella, a mistress of James, duke of York (James II.), a pair of colours in a regiment of foot-guards at the early age of sixteen. Having entered into an amorous intrigue with the Duchess of Cleveland, one of the mistresses of Charles II., he was rewarded by her with the sum of £5000, which he at once invested in the purchase of an annuity. At Tangier, in 1666, he greatly distinguished himself; but his eminent abilities were more fully displayed in the campaigns of 1672-77, in Holland, where he commanded a company in the Duke of Monmouth's division of the allied army, and studied the art of war under Condé, Vauban, and Turenne. At Maestricht he saved the life of the Duke of Monmouth, and for his eminent gallantry received the