MAP.

Their language belongs to the Malay family, and seven different dialects are spoken. It is rich and sonorous, and well adapted for poetical expression, especially of the lyrical kind. They have many proverbs, legends, and traditions, and an interesting collection of them was made by Sir George Grey, at one time governor of New Zealand.

MAP (in Latin, mappa, a cloth; in French, mappede, a map of the world). A map is the representation of the surface of a sphere or a portion of a sphere on a plane. The name, however, is commonly applied to those pne drawings which represent the form, extent, position, and other particulars of the various countries of the earth. One of the oldest maps is the "Mappa Mundi" of Herefed Cathedral, certainly as early as 1250, perhaps earlier. Maps, being plane representations of the surface of a phere, may be obviously applied to various purposes;

ce we not only have terrestrial maps to represent the Farface of the earth, but celestial or astronomical maps to represent the sphere of the heavens; and these general anctions have again their subdivisions. There are two kids of terrestrial maps-geographic or land maps, and ydrographic or sea maps: the latter are usually called CHARTS. The methods adopted in the construction of raps are as various as the taste and judgment of geoabers themselves, but they may all be referred to two pes, viz. projection and development.

By projection is meant the representation of the surface ef a sphere on a plane, according to the laws of perspece. By development is to be understood the unfolding spreading out of the spherical surface on a plane. This, towever, first supposes the sphere to be converted into a ee or a cylinder; these being the forms portions of which rest resemble portions of a sphere, and which, at the same Le, are susceptible of the required development. There are methods of spheric projection in general use, the ponic or central, the stereographic, and the orthogic, distinguished from each other by the different ps of the projecting point in which the eye is suppsed to be placed.

PROJECTION.

The Gnomonic or Central Projection supposes the eye to be placed in the centre of the sphere, and that the various

Gnomonic Projection.

ects to be delineated are transferred from a sphere to a Late, which is a tangent to its surface. The entire hemi: can never be represented by this projection, since the creamference which terminates it is on a level with hye, and is therefore parallel to the plane of projection. T's retard is chiefly used in dialling, but may be advansly applied to maps of a limited extent, more especially they are maps of the polar regions of the globe. In this case the meridians will be straight lines radiating from the centre, and the parallels of latitude concentric circles, whose

VOL IX.

MAP.

distances from the centre will respectively be equal to the cotangents of their latitudes. In the other cases of this projection, where the perspective plane is parallel to the horizon, or to any meridian, the construction is rendered troublesome on account of the parallels of latitude becoming curves of difficult delineation: these cases therefore are seldom brought into use.

Stereographic Projection.-In this projection the eye is supposed to be placed at the surface of the sphere, and to view the concave of the opposite hemisphere through the plane of that circle in the pole of which the eye is placed.

m, n.

A

E

G

Stereographic Projection.

If E be the eye, and A G C the hemisphere to be represented, A B C D will be the plane of projection; and the position on this plane of any point of the spherical surface will be indicated by a line drawn from that point through the plane to the eye. Thus the points K, L, M, N, on the sphere, will be transferred to the plane at k, l, The advantages offered by this method of projection have brought it more into use than the other two methods. It is especially calculated for maps of the world, as usually made in two hemispheres, from the circumstance of the representation being less distorted, and also on account of the meridians and parallels intersecting each other at right angles, as they do on the globe. Its construction also is less difficult than others, since all the great circles of the sphere are either circles or straight lines in the projection. The meridian of 20° W. is the one usually selected by English geographers for the plane of projection in these maps of the world, because this meridian passes very nearly between the eastern and western continents, which therefore occupy their respective hemispheres.

Orthographic Projection.-In this projection the eye is supposed to be at an infinite distance, so that the visual rays leave the sphere in parallel lines. The perspective plane on which a hemisphere is supposed to be delineated is the plane of that diameter which is perpendicular to the visual rays-hence every point of the hemisphere is transferred to this plane by perpendiculars let fall upon it. It will be immediately seen from the figure, that the representation will decrease in accuracy with the increase of distance from the centre; the parts near the circumference being much foreshortened and distorted.

In a Polar Map of this projection the meridians, as in the gnomonic maps, will be radii, and the parallels concentric circles; these circles, however, will have their distance from the centre equal to the cosines, and not to the cotangents of their respective latitudes.

In an Equatorial Map of this projection the equatorial regions of the globe are made to occupy the centre of the

8

MAP.

map, and the plane of projection coincides with the plane of one of the meridians. In this case the latitude circles will be projected in straight lines parallel to the equator, which is also a straight line, and will vary in distance from it according to the sines of their respective

Orthographic Projection.

latitudes. The meridians will be portions of ellipses intersecting the equator in points similar in position to the intersecting points of the parallels on the polar diameter, and having their transverse axes coincident with this diameter and equal to it.

PROJECTION BY DEVELOPMENT.

MAP.

with the corresponding ones on the sphere. All the delineations having been thus made, the cone is then conceived to be unrolled or developed on a plane surface. Should the map be made to extend much above or below the middle parallel, the distant parts will be very much distorted. To remedy the defects of this projection, various modifications have been suggested, among which those of Flamsteed are generally held in the highest estimation.

Cylindrical Projection.-From what has been said of the cone, it will be easily understood that a cylinder may be applied to the sphere in a similar manner, and that a zone of a very limited extent in latitude may, without very material error, be developed on a cylinder. The peculiarity of this method is that the meridians, as well as the latitude circles, are projected in parallel straight lines-a condition of the map which makes it very applicable to nautical purposes, and on which is partly founded the very ingenious method called Mercator's projection, now universally adopted in our charts, and to which, in conclusion, we wil briefly allude.

Mercator's Projection.-The line on which a ship sails, when directing her course obliquely to the meridian, is on the globe a spiral, since it cuts all the meridians through which it passes at equal angles. This circumstance, cornbined with others, rendered a map constructed on the principles of the spherical projections very inadequate to the wants of the navigator. Mercator considered, very justly, that mariners do not employ maps to know the true figures of countries, so much as to determine the course they shall steer, and the bearing and distance of those points or places which lie near their track; and this projection is the result of his efforts to secure to the seaman these desirable ends. The merit of this most useful method is thought by many to be more justly due to Wright; for although Mercator published his first chart in 1556, be omitted to declare the principles on which he proceeded, and his degrees of latitude did not preserve a just proportion in their increase towards the poles. Wright, in 1599, corrected these errors, and explained the principles of his improved construction, in which the degrees of latitude on the chart were made to increase towards the pole in the same ratio as they decrease on the globe; so that the course a ship steers by the mariner's compass becomes on the chart a straight line; the various regions of the map, however distorted, preserve their true relative bearing, and the distances between them can be accurately measured. (Consult Jamieson, "On Maps;" Malte Brun, "Géographie Universelle;" and De Morgan, Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere.")

MAP or MAPES, WALTER DE, one of the main authorities for the reign of Henry II., and one of the creators of the legend of the Holy Grail and the Knights of the Round Table. He was born on the Welsh border about 1140, studied at the Paris University in 1160, became attached to the court of Henry II., and was one of the justices in eyre 1173. He was a delegate of the king's to the Lateran Council in 1179, and became Lis chaplain in 1190. He died about 1195. The whole chitchat of the time is swept together in his "Nuga" (Trifles), and a valuable if veiled account of the Becket controversy is given in his Bishop Goliath," a fierce satire against the greed and selfishness of the church officials, the drunken, lewd, gross Goliath towering above them all, and Map posing as the David with a little book for his stone wherewith to overthrow the monster. Too drunk to hold his wine cup, in one passage Goliath roars out the well-known song"Mihi est propositum in tabernâ mori" determined to die drinking in an inn), because,

(I have
says he,
"Deus sit propitius huic potatori"
(God will sure be merciful to a good toper).

MAPLE.

As regards the Arthurian legend, this interesting and varied old writer is of great interest. The "Little Grail' had already been produced, but it was Map who in the "Great Holy Grail gave it with its full majesty, though still keeping clear of definite connection with King Arthur. Afterwards he produced the really magnificent romance, "Lancelot of the Lake," and then the mystical "Quest of the Holy Grail," with the knight of purity, Sir Galabad, and the knight of divalry, Sir Lancelot, as its heroes. Finally, he wound up the whole and connected it with the Arthurian legends in the "Mort Artus." It is not too much to say that Map founded the chivalrous style in literature; the elaborate and romantic religious and mystical feeling, the imaginative and allegorical narrative, and the striving after refinement of manners, while yet unspotted courage and rough tardihood are retained, are the well-known elements of this style, fascinating to lovers of antiquities.

As a specimen of Old French the following may be perased from Lancelot of the Lake":

"Atant sont venu li chevalier jusqu'au pont; lors comcent à plorer (weep) top durement tuit ensemble. Et Lanceloz lor demande porquoi il plorent et font tel duel (arning). Et il dient (they say) que c'est por amor di ai, que trop est perillox li ponz (bridges)," &c. MAPLE (Acer) is a genus of trees or shrubs, many of which are extremely valuable for the sake either of their taber or of their ornamental appearance. They are for the most part hardy. The maples belong to the order SAFISDACEE, and are chiefly distinguished by the exalbumes seeds and opposite leaves. The flowers are regular, yamous; the calyx is generally five-parted; the petals of the same number, or wanting; the disc is in the form daring; the stamens, generally eight, inserted on the te: the ovary is two-celled, with two ovules in each cell; the fruit is formed of two samara or “keys,” each containEz cne or sometimes two seeds; the leaves are simple. There are about fifty species, natives of Europe, North Ana, the Himalayan region, Java, and a few of North Ata. They form extensive forests in North America.

Acer campestre (the common maple) is found in every hedgerow in England, and spread over the greater part of Lampe. It is said not to be indigenous in Scotland, and the Continent it does not approach the north nearer than the southern provinces of Sweden. In England it ither a bush or small tree; the wood makes excellent The ancient Romans were fond of making tables f the wood, which is of a fine grain, and often beautifully

iced.

Acer Pseudo-platanus (the sycamore maple). This noble tree is scarcely met with in a truly wild state beyond the its of middle and southern Europe; it is considered on the edges of the high moors of Northumberland Da Scotland. Occasionally seen on the lower ridges of the Caucasus, it does not appear to extend much further award. Its English name has originated in an erroneous tre that this is the sycamore of Scripture-a totally trest tree, for an account of which see FIG. Although thewood of this species is not particularly valuable, being tely used for coarse work, where lightness and toughness required, yet there is scarcely any more universally avated for the sake of the striking effect it produces, er as a single tree, or planted in avenues, or in masses. It trives upon poor sandy or gravelly soil, especially near theses, where few other trees will succeed; and will even war the smoke of London, although not so well as some

Arr striatum (the striped-bark maple) is a native of X America, from Canada to Georgia. It forms a conrable part of the undergrowth of the woods, among -males, beeches, birches, and hemlock-spruce firs. I rarely exceeds 10 feet in height, except in a few very favourable situations, when it will occasionally grow double

MAPLE SUGAR.

that height. Its wood is very white, and is used for inlaying cabinet-work; its shoots afford food to various animals, especially to the moose-deer, in winter and spring, whence it has acquired the name of moose-wood. In Europe it is occasionally seen in plantations, where it is remarkable for the bright rosy tint of its young leaves in spring. Acer obtusatum (the Neapolitan maple) is a native of Hungary, Croatia, and many parts of Italy. Its leaves are five-lobed and woolly beneath. On all the hills near Naples it is found abundantly, growing usually to the height of 40 feet. It is extremely striking, with its reddishpurple branches; in Calabria it acquires colossal dimensions. Acer tartaricum (the Tartarian maple) is an ornamental tree or bush, 20 feet high, often met with in gardens. It extends from mid Asia as far as Hungary. The Kalmucks call it zarza-modon or locust-tree. From its keys, deprived of their wings, they form, by the aid of boiling water, an astringent beverage, which, mixed with milk and butter, forms a favourite article of their diet. The wood is hard and white, mixed with brownish veins.

Acer lævigatum (the polished maple) is found in the woods of the temperate Himalayas and Khasia, where it acquires a trunk 40 feet high and 4 feet thick. The leaves are like those of the following species, but are glossy on both sides and the veins strongly marked. Its growth is slow; its timber is used in Nepal for building purposes.

Acer oblongum (oval-leaved maple) is an evergreen tree, of rapid growth, 50 feet high, native of the temperate Himalayas, Hong Kong, Lochow Island. Its leaves are 3 to 7 inches long, without any divisions, of an ovate figure, tapering into a narrow point; they stand upon slender footstalks, and are smooth and glossy above; beneath they are covered with a slight bloom, and are finely netted.

Acer platanoides (the Norway maple) is a fine tree, with very handsome glossy deep-green leaves, for the sake of which it is a great deal cultivated. The northern and midland parts of Europe produce this species. It passes from the state of a shrub, in the north, to that of a handsome tree with a trunk 2 feet thick, in more southern districts. Its wood is valued for turners' work; from its ascending sap a kind of coarse sugar has been procured, in the same way as from the Acer saccharinum, in America. When the footstalks of the leaves are broken they exude a milky fluid.

Acer saccharinum (the sugar maple). From Canada to Georgia this species prevails, sometimes becoming as much as 80 feet high. In the autumn the woods of those countries are dyed of a crimson hue by the changing leaves of the sugar maple. The wood is hard, and has a satiny lustre, but it is readily attacked by insects, and is not of much value, except when its grain is accidentally waved, and then it is in request for the cabinet-makers. The saccharine matter contained in its ascending sap is the principal cause of this species being in so much request. From this sap, obtained by tapping the trunk in the spring during the space of six weeks, a very considerable quantity of a fine brown sugar is procured; as much, it is said, as 33 lbs. per tree. The sugar maple does not generally succeed in England.

Cultivation. The hardy maples, which are the only kinds of any importance in this country, are all increased either by seeds or layers. The European species readily yield their keys, which should be gathered when fully ripe, and immediately buried in heaps of river sand, where they may remain till the following February; they may then be sown in beds, rather thinly, and when one year old should be transplanted, and treated like other forest trees. They ought never to be headed back, as oaks and Spanish chestnuts are. From layers they all make excellent plants very rapidly.

MAPLE SUGAR, sugar obtained by evaporation from the juice of the Sugar Maple (Acer saccharinum).

the assassin, and had not Danton's splendid courage left Lim defenceless, the much smaller mind of Robespierre ould never have attained to the supreme power. Of these three revolutionaries Marat, at all events, became practically insane. M. Taine in his fine work, "Les Origines de la France Contemporaine" (Paris, 1885), very carefully details the evident proofs of this. M. Taine points out that "He is almost a lunatic. He possesses all the principal traits of the lunatic; the furious exaltation, the continued ever-excitement, the feverish activity, the unfailing flow of wards, the automatism of thought and the will, lockjawed Lader the constraint and direction of the fixed idea; besides, he shows the ordinary physical symptoms-insomnia, a leaden complexion, a burning blood, personal uncleanliress, and, during the last five months, tetters and itchings all over his body."

In politics he holds with the insane notions of the rabble, rendering them more insane still by his coarse socialistic rawings, and by adopting the method of misled physioists who found right on physical want. Imagining Arself the righter of all wrongs

"He is the great political physician; since the comcement of the Revolution his diagnosis has always been are, his prognostic infallible, his therapeutic efficacious, tane, and salutary. He brings the panacea, let him atanister it; only, in order to effect a cure, he must adaster it himself. Put, therefore, the public lancet into bands that he may practise humanitarian bleeding. Every physician will by these traits recognize that Maat is the victim of ambitious delirium,' well kw in the asylums. The disease grows till it bes homicidal monomania. From the first Boths of the Revolution this disease has shown itself in Marat; it is innate, inoculated; knowingly and by princie te has contracted it; and from the beginning to the end of the Revolution he has been the enlightened, daring re among an insane mob, reaching at one bound the pc to which his rivals climbed laboriously after him." From December, 1789, to September, 1792, Marat, test from hiding-places, sent forth his abominable infarzatory sheets called L'Ami du Peuple, frightfullest of papers, one long shriek for revenge, plunder, and blood. He was often summoned before the Constituent (National) Ably in the beginning, but always escaped; and when awards his ravings grew more violent he refused to d, and kid from their summons. He had determined ree the hand of Mirabeau and the constitutional rerass. These prating senators," he yells, "cannot save La ry:lation; 260,000 aristocrats' heads, that is what is aded." Or another time, when Barbaroux had gone to seram, attending some lectures on optics that Marat was ag at the time, the latter said, with as much coolness bead ever muster, "Give me 200 Naples bravos, armed with a good dirk and a muff on his left arm by af shield; with them I will traverse France and h the Revolution" ("Memoirs of Barbaroux," 14, 1822). Again in L'Ami du Peuple, No. 306, one yet read him advising plunder and murder in calmly and details, really meant to be carried out, as one has wedge with a sickening horror, "What man has " to dine when you have no bread?" begins he; then es, "O people! treason, delusion, from Dan to Beera! What remedy? Eight hundred gibbets, convenient Rquetti (Mirabeau) on the first of them." The list Led not be extended, but in these days, when men are glorify the bloodthirsty brutal demagogues of the Revelatu, it is imperatively necessary to put them in What is given is a sample, not an tal passage, from the second year of L'Ami du Marat's bust, with those of Mirabeau, Franklin, and sters, decorated the hall of the Jacobins Club; but that

ther trae light.

MARAT.

great society was too lukewarm for him. He helped to found the rabid Cordeliers Club in 1790, and here occasionally his harsh voice would utter the horrors which more often were promulgated by his pen. Everywhere that action was begun Marat was to be found. With his own hands he pulled the rope which rang the tocsin on the night of 9-10th August, ushering in that awful massacre of the Swiss Guards which yet wrings the heart with shame at the lethargic king, whose faithful followers were allowed to be shot like dogs. From these horrors arose the great Paris Commune (or Municipality), and at its sittings the "friend of the people" was an honoured guest; he even had apportioned to him a "tribune of honour," whence he sent forth, as he watched the debates, his sheets, now called Journal de la République. One ardent admirer styled him, as he pointed him out, "the conscience of the Hotel de Ville." What a conscience this was may be judged from the fact that a circular yet exists, signed by Marat and nine others, sent to all other town-halls in France from that of Paris, complaining that only “a part of the ferocious conspirators detained in the Paris prisons have been put to death by the people" (in those September massacres which perhaps mark the greatest crime of this awful period), and demanding that the remainder shall be put to death. "We make no doubt but that the whole nation, driven to the edge of ruin by such endless series of treasons, will hasten to adopt this means of salvation" (dated 3rd September, 1792). Marat was elected with acclamation a deputy to the Convention (21st September, 1792), and it was not a month before he appeared in the character of a delegate from the Jacobins, and publicly reprimanded General Dumouriez to his face for "not having chased Brunswick hotly enough," when Dumouriez had come to Paris after his brilliant victory over the Prussians, so great was the position Marat had at once obtained in the new assembly. And yet on his first appearance in the tribune to answer outcries against his journal as an offence against public decency, he was met with a storm of execration. "It seems," he said as soon as he could be heard, "that many here are my enemies." "All, all!" shouted hundreds of voices. But before that very sitting was over Marat had evaded the charges and had won his point; whereupon, drawing a pistol he declared, “Behold! citizens, had you passed your accusation-decree, with this I, the friend of the people,' would have blown out my brains; and as to my demand for 260,000 heads of aristocrats, that is my opinion of what is necessary," and no man was found to shout execration this time. Later on, upbraiding the people for suffering hunger, he suggested the hanging of certain holders of corn on their own doorframes as a remedy; and the Girondins felt themselves powerful enough to fling him into prison for it. It was their first great failure, for the revolutionary tribunal would not convict. Marat issued from prison to be carried along the streets in a chair of triumph borne on men's shoulders, crowned with an oak garland, 24th April, 1793. By the 2nd of June the Girondins were in their turn in prison; the squalid "people's friend" had conquered, and very different was their fate.

The horror and hatred of this bloodthirsty madman penetrated all well-thinking minds, and among others that of a young republican girl, a friend of Barbaroux, and a native of Caen, named CHARLOTTE CORDAY. On Tuesday, 9th July, 1793, four years after Marat had disarmed the hussars at the Bastille, this girl, determined to be his murderess if she could, left Caen by coach. On Thursday 11th she arrived at Paris, visited the Convention during Friday, and found Marat was ill and at home; and on Saturday 13th, with a large sheath-knife which she purchased on the road, she demanded to see Marat at his residence, 44 Rue de L'École de Médecine. He was too ill, they said. She sent him two notes during the day,