When an adjective has a preposition before it, and the substantive is understood, the words assume the nature of an adverb, and may be considered as an adverbial phrase: as, “In general, in particular, in common," &c.; that is, "Generally, particularly, commonly."

Enow was formerly used as the plural of enough: but it is now obsolete.

RULE. IX.

THE article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively: as, "A Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand."

The definite article the may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number: as, "The garden, the houses, the stars."

The articles are often properly omitted: when used, they should be justly applied, according to their distinct nature; as, "Gold is corrupting; the sea is green; a lion is bold.”

See Vol. ii. Part 3. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 9.

IT is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken of. A determines it to be one single think of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which; the determines which it is, or of many, which they are.

The following passage will serve as an example of the dif ferent uses of a and the, and of the force of the substantive without any article. article. "Man was made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men: but a man will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the men, with whom he has the most frequent intercourse; and enter into a still closer union with the man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own.

There is in some instances, a peculiar delicacy in the application or omission of the indefinite article. This will be scen in the following sentences. We commonly say; "I do not intend to turn critic on this occasion;" not "turn a critic." On the other hand, we properly add the article in this phrase; "I do not intend to become a critic in this business;" not, "to become critic." It is correct to say with the article, "He is in a great hurry;" but not, "in great hurry. And yet, in this expression, "He is in great haste," the article should be omitted: it would be improper to say, "He is in a great haste." A nice discernment, and accurate attention to the best usage, are necessary to direct us, on these occasions,

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to exhibit a few instances: "And I persecuted this way unto the death." The apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general: the definite article therefore is improperly used: it ought to be "unto death," without any article.

"When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth;" that is, according to this translation, "into all truth whatsoever, into truth of all kinds;" very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from the original, "into all the truth;" that is, "into all evangelical truth, all truth necessary for you to know."

"Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?" it ought to be "the wheel," used as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. "The Almighty hath given reason to a man to be a light unto him:" it should rather be, "to man," in general. "This day is salvation come to this house, forasmuch as he also is the son of Abraham:" it ought to be, "a son of Abraham."

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the proper use of the article, and the excellence of the. English language in this respect; which, by means of its two articles, does most precisely determine the extent of signification of common names.

1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omission of the article a. If I say, "He behaved with a little reverence" my meaning is positive. If I say "He behaved with little reverence;" my meaning is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the latter I dispraise him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before nouns of number. When I say, "There were few men with him;" I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable: whereas, when I say, "There were a few men with him;" I evidently intend to make the most of them.

2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of two words in the same construction; though the French never fail to repeat it in this case. "There were many hours, both of the night and day, which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It might have been "of the night and of the day." And, for the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series of epithets. "He

hoped that this title would secure him an ample, and an independent authority."

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a grave style. "At worst, time might be gained by this expedient." "At the worst," would have been better in this place. "Give me here John Baptist's head." There would have been more dignity in saying, "John the Baptist's head;" or, "The head of John the Bap

tist."

The article the has sometimes a good effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man.” “I own I am often surprised that he should have treated so coldly, a man so much the gentleman."

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for the pronoun possessive: as, "He looks him full in the face;" that is, "in his face." "In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground;" that is, “their foreheads."

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after the substantive. "Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of those countries." "With such a specious title as that of blood, which with the multitude is always a claim, the strongest, and the most easily comprehended." "They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be replaced."

The definite article is likewise used to distinguish between things, which are individually different, but have one generic name, and things which are, in truth, one and the same, but are characterized by several qualities. If we say, "The ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in this measure," the expression is ambiguous, as far as language can render it so. The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent his mistaking it; but, if such modes of expression be admitted, where the sense is clear, they may inadvertently be imitated, in cases where the meaning would be obscure, if not entirely misunderstood. The error might have been avoided, either by repeating the substantive, or by subjoining the substantive to the first adjective, and prefixing the article to both adjectives; or by placing the substantive after both adjectives, the article being prefixed in the same manner: as, "The ecclesiastical powers, and the secular powers;" or better, "The

ecclesiastical powers, and the secular;" or, "The ecclesiastical, and the secular powers." The repetition of the article shows, that the second adjective is not an additional epithet to the same subject, but belongs to a subject totally different, though expressed by the same generic name. "The lords spiritual and temporal," is a phraseology objectionable on the same principle, though now so long sanctioned by usage, that we scarcely dare question its propriety. The subjects are different, though they have but one generic name. The phrase should, therefore, have been, "The spiritual and the temporal lords." On the contrary, when two or more adjectives belong as epithets, to one and the same thing, the other arrangement is to be preferred: as, "The high and mighty states." Here both epithets belong to one subject. "The states high and mighty," would convey the same idea.

The indefinite article has, frequently, the meaning of every or each: as, "They cost five shillings a dozen;" that is, "every dozen," or "each dozen."

"A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds a year;"

that is, "every year.”

-Goldsmith.

There is a particular use of the indefinite article, which deserves attention, as ambiguity may, by this means, be in some cases, avoided. Thus, if we say, "He is a better soldier than scholar;" the article is suppressed before the second term, and the expression is equivalent to, "He is more warlike than learned;" or, "He possesses the qualities which form the soldier, in greater degree than those which constitute the scholar." If we say, "He would make a better soldier than a scholar," the article is prefixed to the second term, and the meaning is, "He would make a better soldier than a scholar would make;" that is, "He has more of the constituent qualities of a soldier, than are to be found in any literary man." These two phraseologies are frequently confounded, which seldom fails to produce uncertainty of meaning. In the former case, the subject, as possessing different qualities in various degrees, is compared with itself; in the latter it is compared with something else.

RULE X.

ONE substantive governs another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive case: as, "My father's house;" "Man's happiness;" "Vir

tue's reward."

See Vol. ii. Part 3. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 10.

WHEN the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, and serves merely to explain or describe it, there is no variation of case: as, "George, king of Great Britain, elector of Hanover," &c.; "Pompey contended with Cæsar, the greatest general of his time;" "Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." Nouns thus circumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The interposition of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction: as, "Pompey contended with Cæsar, who was the greatest general of his time." Here the word general is in the nominative case, governed by note 4, under rule xi. Both the parts of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences: "Maria rejected Valerius, the man whom she had rejected before;" "Maria rejected Valerius, who was he that she had rejected before."

Nouns are not unfrequently set in apposition to sentences, or clauses of sentences: as, "If a man had a positive idea of infinite, either duration or space, he could add two infinites together; nay, make one infinite infinitely bigger than another: absurdities too gross to be confuted." Here the absurdities are the whole preceding propositions. "You are too humane and considerate; things which few people can be charged with." Here things are in apposition to humane and considerate. This construction is not to be recommended, when the parts of the sentence are long, or numerous. The first of the preceding examples, is, therefore, improvable. It would have been better if a fresh sentence had been introduced, thus: "These are absurdities" &c.

The preposition of joined to a substantive, is frequently equivalent to the possessive case: as, "A Christian's hope," "The hope of a Christian" But it is only so, when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case. We can say, "The reward of virtue,” and “ Virtue's reward;" but though it is proper to say, "A crown of gold," we cannot convert the expression into the possessive "Gold's crown." case, and say,

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case: as, "Every tree is known by its fruit;" "Goodness brings its reward:" "That desk is mine."

The genitive its is often improperly used for 'tis or it is: as, "Its my book;" instead of, "It is my book."

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the personal pronoun: as, "This composition is his." "Whose book is that?" "His." If we use the moun itself, we should say, "This composition is John's." "Whose book is that?" "Eliza's." The position will be still