of the mind either abstracting or giving a name to that complex idea.

For the originals of mixed modes we look no farther than the mind; which also shows them to be the workmanship of the understanding.-Conformably also to what has been said concerning the Essences of the species of Mixed Modes that they are the creatures of the Understanding rather than the works of nature-we find that their names lead our thoughts to the mind, and no farther. When we speak of 'justice' or 'gratitude,' we frame to ourselves no imagination of anything existing, which we would conceive; but our thoughts terminate in the Abstract Ideas of those virtues, as they do when we speak of a ‘horse' or 'iron,' whose specific ideas we consider not as barely in the mind, but as in things themselves, which afford the original patterns of those ideas. But in Mixed Modes, at least the most considerable parts of them, which are moral beings, we consider the original patterns as being in the mind; and to those we refer for the distinguishing of particular beings under names. And hence I think it is that these Essences of the species of Mixed Modes are by a more particular name called Notions, as by a peculiar right appertaining to the Understanding.

Their being made by the understanding without patterns shows the reason why they are so compounded.-Hence likewise we may learn, why the Complex ideas of Mixed Modes are commonly more compounded and decompounded than those of Natural Substances. Because they being the workmanship of the Understanding, pursuing only its own ends and the conveniency of expressing in short those ideas it would make known to ano

ther, it does with great liberty unite often into one Abstract idea things that in their nature have no coherence; and so under one term [joins] together a great variety of compounded and decompounded ideas. Thus the name of 'procession,' what a great mixture of independent ideas of persons, habits, orders, motions, sounds -does it contain in that complex one, which the mind of man has arbitrarily put together to express by that one name! Whereas the Complex ideas of the sorts of Substances are usually made up of only a small number of Simple ones; and in the species of animals, these two, viz. shape and voice, commonly make the whole Nominal Essence.

Names of mixed modes stand always for their real essences. —Another thing we may observe from what has been said is, that the Names of Mixed Modes always signify (when they have any determined signification) the Real Essences of their species. For, these abstract ideas being the workmanship of the mind, and not [being] referred to the real existence of things, there is no supposition of anything more signified by that name but barely that complex idea the mind itself has formed, which is all it would have expressed by it; and is that on which ali the properties of the species depend, and from which alone they all flow: and so in these the Real and Nominal Essence is the same; which of what concern it is to the certain Knowledge of general Truth—we shall see hereafter.

Why their names are usually got before their ideas.This also may show us the reason why for the most part the names of Mixed Modes are got before the ideas they

stand for are perfectly known. Because, there being no species of these ordinarily taken notice of but what have Names, and those species, or rather their Essences, being Abstract Complex ideas made arbitrarily by the mind, it is convenient, if not necessary, to know the names before one endeavour to frame these complex ideas. I confess that in the beginning of Languages it was necessary to have the idea before one gave it the name: and so it is still where making a new Complex idea-one, also, by giving it a new name makes a new Word. But this concerns not Languages made, which have generally pretty well provided for ideas which men have frequent occasion to have and communicate: and in such I ask whether it be not the ordinary method that children learn the names of Mixed Modes before they have their ideas? What one of a thousand ever frames the abstract ideas of 'glory' and 'ambition' before he has heard the names of them? In Simple Ideas and Substances, I grant, it is otherwise; which being such ideas as have a real existence and union in nature, the ideas or names are got, one before the other, as it happens.

What has been said here of Mixed Modes is with very little difference applicable also to Relations ; which every man may himself observe.

CHAPTER VII.

OF PARTICLES.

Particles connect parts [of sentences] or whole sentences together. Besides Words which are Names of ideas in the

mind, there are a great many others that are made use of to signify the connexion that the mind gives to ideas or propositions, one with another. The mind, in communicating its thoughts to others, does not only need signs of the ideas it has then before it, but others also to show or intimate some particular action of its own at that time relating to those ideas. This it does [in] several ways—as 'is,' and 'is not,' are the general marks of the mind affirming or denying; [while] besides affirmation or negation, without which there is in Words no truth or falsehood, the mind does, in declaring its sentiments to others, connect not only the parts of propositions, but whole sentences one to another, with their several relations and dependencies, to make a coherent discourse.

In them consists the art of speaking well.-The Words whereby it signifies what connexion it gives to the several affirmations and negations that it unites in one continued reasoning or narration, are generally called Particles: and it is in the right use of these that more particularly consist the clearness and beauty of a good Style. To think well it is not enough that a man has ideas 'clear and distinct in his thoughts, or that he observes the agreement or disagreement of some of them; but he must think in train, and observe the dependence of his thoughts and reasonings one upon another: and to express well such methodical and rational thoughts he must have Words to show what connexion, restriction, distinction, opposition, emphasis, &c., he gives to each respective part of his discourse. To mistake in any of these is to puzzle instead of informing his hearer: and therefore it is that those Words which are not truly by

themselves the Names of any ideas, are of such constant and indispensable use in Language, and do much contribute to men's well expressing themselves.

They show what relation the mind gives to its own thoughts. -This part of grammar has been perhaps as much neglected as some others [have been] over-diligently cultivated. It is easy for men to write, one after another, of cases and genders, moods and tenses, gerunds and supines: in these and the like, there has been great diligence used; and Particles themselves in some Languages have been, with great show of exactness, ranked into their several orders. But though 'Prepositions' and Conjunctions,' &c., are names well known in grammar, and the Particles contained under them [are] carefully ranked into their distinct subdivisions, yet he who would show the right use of Particles, and what significancy and force they have, must take a little more pains, enter into his own thoughts, and observe nicely the several [positions] of his mind in discoursing.

Neither is it enough, for the explaining of these Words, to render them, as is usual in dictionaries, by `words of another tongue which come nearest to their signification: for what is meant by them is commonly as hard to be understood in one as [in] another language. They are all marks of some action or intimation of the mind; and therefore to understand them rightly, the several views, stands, turns, limitations, and exceptions, and several other thoughts of the mind, for which we have either no names or very deficient [ones], are diligently to be studied. Of these there [is] a great variety, much exceeding the number of Particles that