gas can possibly be forced past it into the base- view, in the event of any foreign substar.ce ment or any other part of the house. causing a stoppage, it can be readily remedied The outer end of the lever being exposed to by a domestic. When the cup valve is in the position it | the appearance of the parasite both free and takes while flushing, the opening is increased in the cyst. from the diameter of the inlet pipe above it to 12 inches. Mr. Banner has also devised a very ingenious apparatus for disinfecting a trap (see fig. 125). A is a glass vase holding 1 gallon of a disinfectant fluid; this is, in fact, the reservoir. The hollow tube B is fixed to a lead valve C, which has discs of indiarubber D attached to it above and below; EE are openings into and out of the small chamber A', which admit of its filling or emptying as the indiarubber discs rest upon the lower, or are held up to the upper, side of the small chamber A'; F is an air-hole, and G is the outlet pipe through which the regulated charge of disinfectant passes to the D trap, on the valve being raised by the action of the lever spring fixed on the bracket above the vase A. It is obvious that with the valve in the position represented, the chamber A' is full of fluid; but upon raising the valve, the upper discs D D are closely applied to the openings from the reservoir, but leaving the lower openings E E open, the contents of the chamber A' are discharged into the trap. But whether the forms of traps described are used or not, this is certain, that the common bell trap is, under the most favourable conditions, extremely inefficient; that with the common siphon traps ventilation of the traps, as well as disinfection from time to time, is as a rule necessary, and that all require occasional supervision. See SEWER. Trees-See PENALTIES, PLANTATIONS. Triohina Spiralis- A minute round worm, enclosed in a more or less transparent capsule, that has been found as a parasite in the muscular system of man and animals. Fig 126. Fig. 127. of the parasite :- 1. The Trichina spiralis in its mature state is an extremely minute nematode helminthe; the male in its fully-developed and sexually-mature condition measuring only of an inch, whilst the perfectlydeveloped female reaches a length of about; body rounded and filiform, usually slightly bent upon itself, rather thicker behind than in front, especially in the males; head narrow, finely pointed, unarmed, with a simple, central, minute, oral aperture; posterior extremity of the male furnished with a bilobed caudal appendage, the cloacal or anal aperture being situated between these divergent appendages; penis consisting of a single specula cleft above, so as to assume a V-shaped outline. Female shorter than the male, bluntly rounded posteriorly, with the genital outlet placed far forward, at about the end of the first fifth of the long diameter of the body; eggs measuring from from pole to pole; mode of reproduction viviparous. 2. The sexually-mature trichina inhabits the intestinal canal of numerous warm-blooded animals, especially mammalia (also of man), and constantly in great numbers. 3. At the second day after their introduction the intestinal trichina attain their full sexual maturity, lose their spiral figure, and become stretched, whilst they grow rapidly, and their generative organs are developed. 4. Most females contain from 300 to 500 ova. In six days the female parasites will contain perfectlydeveloped and free embryos in the interior, and these, on attaining full size, pass out at the vaginal open ing. The eggs of the female trichina are developed within the uterus of the mother into minute filarialike embryos, which, from their sixth day, are born without their eggshells. 5. The new-born young soon afterwards commence their wandering. They penetrate the walls of the intestines, and pass directly through the abdominal cavity into the muscles of their bearers, where, if the conditions are otherwise favourable, they are developed into the form hitherto known. 6. The direction in which they proceed is in the course of the intermuscular connective tissue. 7. The majority of the wandering embryos remain in those sheathed muscular groups which are nearest to the cavity of the body, the abdomen, and thorax, especially in those which are smaller and most supplied with connective tissue. 8. The embryos penetrate into the interior of the separate muscular bundles, and here already, after fourteen days, acquire the size and organisation of the well-known Trichina spiralis. 9. Soon after the intrusion of the parasite the Figs. 126 and 127, after Virchow, represent infested muscular fibre loses its original structure. The fibrillæ collapse into a finely granular substance, whilst the muscular corpuscles change into oval nucleated cells. 10. The infested muscular bundle retains its ori ginal sheathing up to the time of the complete development of the young trichina, but afterwards its sarcolemma thickens, and begins to shrivel at the extremities. 11. The spot inhabited by the rolled-up parasites is converted into a spindle-shaped widening, and within this space, under the thickened sarcolemma, the formation of the well-known lemon-shaped or globular cysts commences by a periphic hardening and calcification. One cyst may have from one to three trichinæ. 12. The migration and development of the embryos also take place after the transportation of impregnated trichinæ into the intestines of a new host. 13. The further development of the muscle trichina into sexually mature animals is altogether independent of the formation of the calcareous shell, and occurs as soon as the former have reached their completion. The male and female individuals are already recognisable as sexually distinct in their larval state. -(Entozoa; an Introduction to the Study of Helminthology, with Reference more particularly to the Internal Parasites of Man, by J. Spencer Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S. London, 1864.) So far as it is at present known, the disease dces not attack sheep, oxen, or horses. According to Virchow and Zenker, the most favourable organism for the development of trichina is the human. When meat affected by this parasite is taken into the human stomach, a period of five or six days elapses without symptoms; but in that period the worms have multiplied prodigiously. They become free, leave their capsules, and produce young, which migrate through the intestines into the muscles. Very serious results have followed the ingestion of meat affected with trichinæ. In 1863, out of 103 persons who ate sausages made of an affected pig, at Hettstadt, no less than 83 died from trichinosis (British Medical Journal, January 16, 1864, p. 75), and several similar instances are on record. The symptoms are often strikingly like those produced by an irritant poison-such as loss of appetite, sickness, pain, general weakness of limbs, diarrhoea, swellings of the eyelids, profuse perspiration, and very frequently peritonitis. There is no known method of treatment likely to be of any service. In searching for trichinæ by the microscope the tendinous extremities of muscles should be selected, as there the cysts are most numerous. A small portion of the muscle is cut off by a pair of scissors, and teased into shreds by needles, thus freeing the cysts, which should then be treated with a drop of hydrochloric acid, which will dissolve the lime and make the cyst transparent. Trout-There are several varieties-Salmo furio (Linn.), S. eriox, S. ferox, S. trutta. All these varieties are in their finest condition from the end of May to late in September. The trout contains about 6 per cent. of fat. It should be cooked as soon after it is caught as is practicable. Turbot-The Rhombus maximus (Cuvier). Except the halibut, this is the largest of our flat fish. The following is its composition : Nitrogenous matter, 181 per cent.; fat, 2.9 per cent.; saline matter, 10 per cent.; and water, 78 per cent. The Dutch turbot is usually considered the finest. The structure of turmeric is very characteristic; the microscope shows a cellular tissue containing large loose yellow cells, with here and there small but very distinct starch granules, similar in shape and size to those in curcuma arrowroot, and some woody fibre and dotted ducts. The yellow granular cells can readily be identified wherever they occur. Turmeric is used very extensively as an adulterant and as a colouring agent. When ground it has not unfrequently been found to be itself adulterated with yellow ochre, carbonate of soda, and potash. A careful microscopical examination of the powder and a determination of the ash will easily detect any foreign admixture. Turnip (Brassica Napus, Lindley)--This vegetable is too well known to require any description here. The following table showing its composition illustrates its nutritive value, which is low. Turnips require to be well cooked to be rendered easy of digestion. Composition of Turnips (LETHEBY). Starch Sugar. Sult Water. 1.2 5.1 2.1 0.6 01-0 100.0 Turpentine, Oil of (C10H16. Specific gravity of liquid, '864; of vapour, 476; relative weight, 68; boiling point, 320° = 160° C.) An oleo-resin flowing from the trunk of various species of pine. The common turpentine is obtained from the Pinus abies, Venice turpentine from the Lariz Europea, and the Chian turpentine is derived from the Pistacia Lentiscus. Commercial oil of turpentine consists of a great variety of isomeric hydrocarbons which act differently on polarised light. They have been very carefully studied by Deville and Berthelot (Ann. de Chimie, II. lxxv. 37, and III. xxvii. and xxix.) in their chemical aspects, and would well repay investigation as to their disinfectant powers. All the varieties of turpentine preserve organic structures from decay, and are therefore antiseptic; but there have been few investigations as to the useful hygienic proper ties which they may possess. See TEREBENE Typhoid Fever-See FEVER, TYPHOID. Typho-Rubeoloid- A term used by Roupell in 1831 to denote what we call typhus, in the belief that it was a new disease. See FEVER, TYPHUS. Typhus Fever-See FEVER, TYPHUS. U. Ultramarine—This pigment is obtained from the blue mineral azure stone, lazulite or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of which are brought from China, Persia, and Great Bucharia. It is employed for the purpose of colouring confectionery. The ash of sugar articles so coloured is of a bright blue tint, and the colour is fixed in the fire. This colour being somewhat expensive, a substitute is sometimes used, called German or French ultramarine; this consists of a double silicate of alumina and soda, with sulphuret of soda. See CONFECTIONERY. Umber-Employed for the purpose of colouring sugar, confectionery, &c. It contains iron, and may be distinguished by testing for this metal. See CONFECTIONERY, IRON, &c. Union, Poor-Law-A union is a group or collection of parishes. They were formed, in the first place, by assistant commissioners. The principles guiding their selection were, that the area should not be inconveniently great, and that the population of the parishes should be extensive enough to warrant the formation of a union. Local Acts had also to be taken into account; and where these local Acts were in force, the consent of cer tain persons had to be obtained. From this and other causes, there was often want of coincidence in area with the county; and in some cases, where a town was surrounded by a country district, the town was placed in one union and the country district in another, although the latter formed a circle or half circle round the town. It is of the greatest importance for sanitary purposes that one area should be available for registration, sanitary and poor-law administration; and as the union appears to have been already taken as the sanitary unit in country-places, and answers fairly, it would be still more useful if the areas were made to coincide with the counties.* Poor-law unions are, with certain exceptions, rural sanitary districts, and one or more may, by permission of the Local Government Board, combine together for sanitary purposes. Local Government Board has also the power to compel combination. See SANITARY DIS TRICTS, &c. Urban Sanitary Authorities SANITARY AUTHORITIES. The Any urban authority may provide and maintain public urinals.-(P. H., s. 39.) Urine-The urine appears in all animals to form the principal outlet for the nitrogen of the effete azotised tissues of the system, though the compounds in which it is excreted vary with the kind of animal. Urine has a peculiar odour, and a saline bitter taste. Its specific gravity varies with the diet and state of health of the individual, but it usually See averages about 1020. The amount of urine voided in the four-and-twenty hours also varies, but on an average it may be estimated in the adult at from 40 to 50 ozs. Urine, when left to itself, speedily begins to undergo change. In most cases it first exhibits an increase of acidity, and after standing a few days it begins to putrefy, and acquires a powerfully alkaline reaction and an ammoniacal odour, due to the conversion of the urea into ammonium carbonate. Urine will keep good longer in a clean smooth vessel than in one with rough sides, and longer still if protected from the influence of the atmosphere. The following table shows the composition of an average sample of healthy human urine: Urinals-A urinal should be fitted up in all water-closets, otherwise the closet pan is used for the purpose, and the safe underneath becomes filled up with an objectionable and foul-smelling liquid. Fig. 128 represents the best form of urinal; it is fitted up with a trap underneath, which can, when it is considered desirable, be ven Composition of Urine (MILLER). Specific gravity, 1.020. Fig. 128. tilated by a pipe leading outside, and is intended to be fixed above a treadle plate, which when stood upon provides a rush of water into the basin from the pipe at the top, the flushing supply ceasing when the weight of the foot is removed. A disinfecting apparatus can be applied here similar to that which will be found described under the head of TRAPS and WATER-CLOSETS. These urinals should be constructed of glazed ware, and are best when the basin and trap form one piece of earthenware. Public urinals should be lined with glazed stoneware tiles, or composed of enamelled slabs of smooth slate. An arrangement allowing a small quantity of water to trickle down them constantly will keep them perfectly clean and inodorous. The old stone latrine is to be condemned, and enamelled iron does not always answer well. In 100 Parts The amount of urine secreted, as already noticed, is greatly influenced by the nature of the food; a meat diet largely increases the quantity. The amount of urea is also augmented, and there is an increase in the sulphates and phosphates. Under the influence of animal food its reaction becomes strongly acid, whilst a vegetable diet renders it alkaline. It is probable, though we have no very satisfactory evidence on the point, that urine may be a carrier of infection; hence the importance of disinfecting, as soon as possible, the urine voided by patients suffering from any infectious disease. In cases of suspected poisoning, the urine as well as the stomach should be sent to the analyst, since many poisons make their appearance in that fluid. See EXCRETA. |