case. For example, each heading must be a complete statement with subject and predicate, in order that we may know exactly what fact is affirmed. Furthermore, each argumentative statement must be supported by evidence in the form of sub-headings, and these sub-headings in turn must be supported until we arrive at the solid wall of conviction, and need proceed no further. In a brief the order of writing is always "statement - proof," "statement proof." Mechanical as this order is, it is the only one to insure absolute clearness. The special methods of procedure in drawing a brief are explained by a set of rules. 71. Rules for Briefing. Rule 1. A brief should be divided into three parts marked Introduction, Proof, and Conclusion. Rule 2. Each heading should be a single complete statement: it should never be a compound sentence. Rule 3. The relation of ideas in the brief should be indicated by numbers and letters, and by indentations. Rule 4. In the Introduction the main headings should be the steps of analysis necessary for an intelligent reading of the Proof. (See the list of these steps and the illustrations of headings and sub-headings on p. 93.) Rule 5. The last heading of the Introduction should state the main issues. Rule 6. In the Introduction there should be no statements which require proof except the statements of the conflicting opinions. Since the Introduction is really an exposition, we should follow the rules for expository planning in § 19. Rule 7. In the Proof, the main headings should correspond to the main issues at the end of the Introduction. If there are two issues, there will be two main headings I and II: if there are five issues, there will be five main headings I, II, III, IV, V. - Rule 8. In the Proof, every sub-heading should read as proof of the truth of the heading to which it is subordinate. This is the vital rule of briefing, and it must never be forgotten. Note these illustrations from the brief for the affirmative on the question, "Should the North Atlantic navy yard activities be concentrated at a naval base on Narragansett Bay?" II. Concentration of the North Atlantic navy yard activities at a naval base on Narragansett Bay would promote the military efficiency of the navy. [Proof] A. Narragansett Bay has all the features required for a naval base by the specifications of naval experts. [Proof] [Proof] [Proof] 1. It has an adequate anchorage for a fleet with 2. It can be made impregnable against attack. b. It is already defended by modern fortifica- 3. It would not be possible for an enemy to bottle up any of our ships at this base. a. It would be impossible for an enemy to obstruct effectually such wide and deep channels. 1 United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (Chart) of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. b. An attempt to mine the entrance to the Bay would be foiled by submarines and counter mining. Observe that the sub-headings are not mere explanation, but are proof of the fact affirmed in the preceding heading. You must distinguish between a possible cause and proof. For example: A. John went to bed at eight o'clock: 1. He was tired. Here 1 is the cause of A, but it does not prove A by any means. In order to prove A you must have the testimony of someone who saw John go to bed at eight o'clock. The most effective way of keeping your mind on proof is to concentrate your attention on the predicate of your heading and prove the fact residing in that predicate. It is helpful, when you are making your first brief, to write the word "Proof before each sub-heading, as in the illustration above. You do not need connective words at the end of headings, such as "for," "because," "hence," "therefore," for these connectives are liable to throw you off the straight track of statement proof." 66 Rule 9. Headings introducing refutation should state clearly the argument to be refuted. Refutation is the answering of contentions or objections which the other side may bring forward in connection with main arguments or details of proof. These objections should be answered when they arise. The form of heading should make it clear that you are answering your opponent's contention, thus: A. The argument that the forests are increasing is not true: 1. The alleged increase consists of infant woods which will not mature for a century to come. A. Although it is asserted that the forests are increas ing, this is not true: 1. [as before]. Rule 10. The Conclusion should be merely a summary of the main arguments, followed by an affirmation or denial of the original proposition. Rule 11. The brief should be equipped with references to sources of information in the form of footnotes. (See the example on p. 95 and read § 318 on Footnotes.) 72. Writing the Argument. Now that you have a map of the analysis and the proof of your proposition, the work of writing the argument is more than half done. You should fill out the brief and make the result a readable article. The brief has excellent but rigid structure. In the argument you must not allow this structure to be so obvious that it becomes mechanical and "bony." Your reader must not feel that the argument is only a brief written out in long hand. What can you do to fill out the brief with flesh and blood? Many things. You can add detailed proof; you can give as many examples as you have space for; you can often put this illustrative matter in the form of brief narrative or descriptive passages; you can smooth out the rigid structure by the use of transitions; you can warm the whole argument by means of persuasion; but you must not put in mere padding. In the written argument you must not keep slavishly to the set order of "statement proof," for this becomes very irritating. Frequently you can present the proof first and bring out last the state ment which the evidence proves. This method piques the curiosity. Again, it is often more diplomatic, especially if your audience has views opposed to yours. To come out flat with a statement and then gradually produce the evidence for it seems assertive until the demonstration had been completed. It will often be better to say "Let us see what the facts are and what conclusion they lead to." A few words about the tone of your writing. Avoid a sarcastic treatment of your opponents or your audience. Avoid any appearance of laying down the law. Remember that if the subject is worth anything, it not only has two sides, but two sides almost evenly balanced. If you appear to be reaching a conclusion from which no sane man could conceivably differ, your hearers will be suspicious. They will wonder why this revelation of the truth for which others have anxiously sought has been made to you alone and not to your opponents. Το escape this tone get up your subject thoroughly and then lean on it hard. There is no substitute for hard work in getting facts or for modesty and good sportsmanship in presenting them.1 73. Persuasion. Persuasion, as was pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, is that element in argument which rouses the hearer to action. It accomplishes its work by appealing to the emotions, to various personal interests, sympathies, prejudices, and motives. Persuasion is so powerful a force that it can win its way in the face of conviction. The following example shows how the National House of Representatives was once conquered by persuasion which appealed to sentiment. 1 In the light of the foregoing suggestions consider the briefs and the finished arguments in College Readings, 257-271 and 306–323. |