It is a platitude that one ought not to base one's judgments on appearances, but it is a platitude that is all too frequently ignored. A man of the most saintly aspect, whose chief apparent joy is the reforming of criminals and the writing of sacred music, may at the same time be in reality a poisoner of diabolic ingenuity. Cities of the East, viewed from a distance, are of celestial beauty, but a closer acquaintance reveals a sink of corruption. And so in almost every condition of life, reality wears a mask.

In the advancement of aviation France has taken a leading place from practically the beginning, and the support given to the new science by the French War Office has much to do with the rapid progress made in the last two years.

Leaving aside the performances of civilians, the exploits of the different French military aviators and the purchases of large quantities of aeroplanes by the Government have caused other less progressive countries to make efforts to form effective aerial fleets. The world looks on with admiration at the supposed perfection of organisation in the French aerial corps. And yet, though that corps is supplied liberally with money, and neither men nor machines are lacking, the organisation is of the worst possible description, and matters are going from bad

to worse.

In England we have the organisation, but no machines, whilst in France they have everything that can be required, save that one essential-organisation. The supreme authorities, while they have decided that flying is of incalculable use in a modern army, have not yet made up their minds as to what precisely that use is to be, and consequently money is spent freely, but to no good purpose.

On paper all is well. The official reports speak highly and at great length of the condition and conduct of the "fourth arm. But private information from officer-aviators and others tells a very different tale.

In the first place, the aerial service suffers greatly from lack of definition of authority. A subaltern-aviator actually attached to the air corps is liable to be detached from that service at a moment's notice at the command of any officer senior in rank, even though that officer has nothing to do with the new science. Unless the aviator is on some specific duty, such as a flight round a circuit of aviation camps, he is never free from the fear of interference from outside sources. This state of things ought to be immediately altered. It is, at the same, a warning to the British service. Such things are likely to happen over here.

Further, a list of the French camps of aviation is quite imposing to read, but the greater number only exist on paper. A few ramshackle sheds may exist in each place specified, but they are rarely used, and are certainly not deserving to rank

with the great camps at Etampes and Reims, though officially little distinction is made.

These principal training grounds are themselves in quite a bad condition. To take the case of Etampes, the state of affairs seems to be particularly shameful. There are over 100 officer-aviators and pupils stationed at the camp who have to reside in Etampes itself and travel out daily to the flying ground at Ville Sauvage quite six kilometres out of the town. The aerodrome has been allowed by official negligence to deteriorate until it is certainly not fit for experimental flying on the part of pupils. The sheds, of which the greater number are of canvas, are rotten and sodden with rain. The state of the machines housed in these hangars may well be imagined. All the steel portions of the aeroplanes are covered with rust, the canvas rots and the wood warps, and nothing is done to improve matters. The ground immediately outside the hangars is a morass, and no attempt is made to drain it properly.

As to the conditions of work they are quite as bad. Workmen, expert in the maintenance of engines, receive from the Government eight francs a day in place of thirteen francs which they would receive from almost any ordinary employer. The sappers attached for aviation work on an average ten hours a day. Their food, which they receive at irregular intervals, is meagre and not always fit to eat. Finally, no effort is made to supply them with suitable sleeping accommodation, and they are left to make shift as best they can with bivouac bags on the floors of the sheds, frequently with the rain pouring in torrents through the holes in the roof. On other aerodromes the conditions are but little better.

The selection of sites for flying grounds is also weak. An aviation camp has been opened at great expense on the borders of the Auvergne on a surface so bad that an aeroplane rarely makes a landing without a smash. Our own aerodrome at Farnborough is but little worse.

A

Contradictory orders are frequent, and there seems to be no officer with authority to receive and allocate machines. few weeks ago three biplanes, fitted with Gnôme engines, were delivered at one of the State aerodromes. An order, presumably from Paris, was received to dismantle the engines, but no further instructions were given. Consequently three biplanes are standing useless in the sheds with three Gnôme engines placed near them, but not in them, and equally useless. Red tape is apparently not unknown in France, and inefficiency is not the prerogative of the British War Office.

As is the case with any aerodrome a great number of aeroplane cases are stacked near the hangars. Recently, in a moment of ennui, someone proceeded to examine the interior of the cases, and to his amazement discovered a new aeroplane, which had apparently been lying unopened for months.

99

An army may possess innumerable aeroplanes, but under reatment of this sort they cannot be of great use. New aeroplanes are lying unused whilst officers like Lieut. Lanthcaume go to their deaths on machines of which the condition is disgraceful through criminal neglect on the part of the French General Staff.

It is not lack of money which brings about this state of affairs. It is the lack of a responsible officer in supreme control of the fourth arm, and answerable to the general officer commanding-in-chief for the efficiency of his command.

It should not be in the power of an officer commanding a district to interfere with the general policy of the air corps. The military uses of the aeroplane should be laid down on broad lines and a general scheme should be adhered to rigidly until headquarters find any change desirable. A change of plans, whether good or bad, should affect all and not merely a section of the force. Questions of military discipline, of course, will always be dealt with in the usual way.

As soon as possible officers should be gazetted direct to the air corps from military colleges, and not be merely attached from other units.

In the case of accidents, rigid inquiry should take place, and if negligence bбe proved punishment should be inflicted on the officer deemed responsible. In no other way can the safe condition of the military aeroplane be ensured.

The makers' comments on their own machines when in the form of warnings ought to be duly considered. If a manufac

A Military Designer.

The French Ministry of War, though not intending to construct aeroplanes for use in the fourth arm," are apparently not averse to spending money on the carrying out of designs drawn up by officer-aviators who have shown promise. Lieut. Blard, who last year made a prolonged tour of the military camps of aviation on a Farman biplane (non-lifting tail type), accompanied by a passenger, has been granted three months' leave of absence that he may design and build a monoplane in the Government Aeronautical Laboratory at Chalais-Meudon. As this monoplane is to be of the tail-foremost type, the results of his experiments will be watched with interest.

One hopes that he will be more fortunate in his efforts than Captain Lucas Gérardville, one of the three first pupils of Wilbur Wright, who has spent the last two years at ChalaisMeudon also endeavouring to design an aeroplane, but with no apparent success, though he himself has received a step in

rank.

The manufacturers in France are so well supplied with orders by the Government that they view with unruffled equanimity any aerial experiments carried out at the Army's expense. They are not in least worried at the prospect of the Government constructing largely on its own account. To-day is very pleasant to them, and to-morrow has no terrors.

The Royal Aero Club.

Attention is drawn to the Army and Navy aviation prizes of £1,000, presented by Mr. A. Mortimer Singer, and the British Empire Michelin Cup, No. 2, £600. The gist of the rules is as follows:

MR. A. MORTIMER SINGER has presented to the Royal Aero Club the sum of £1,000 for competition by commissioned officers in his Majesty's Regular Army, the Royal Navy, and the Royal Marines, on the active list. The prize will be divided as follows: Army, £500; Navy and Marines, £500.

The winner to be the officer who, accompanied by a passenger, also in the Regular Service (combined net weight to be not less than 20 stone), starting from any recognised flyingground or other starting-point sanctioned by the Royal Aero Club, makes the longest cross-country flight out and back between April 1st, 1911, and March 31st, 1912, both days inclusive. The flight must be confined to the British Isles.

The flight shall be out and back, and the distance from the starting-point to the turning-point, measured in a straight line, shall be not less than 10 miles or more than 50 miles. A competitor may repeat his out and back flight any number of times without alighting, and in order to arrive at the total distance. covered only the completed circuits will be taken into account. The distance covered will be measured in a straight line between the two points on an Ordnance Survey map. The turning-point must be a fixed object, selected and declared by the competitor to the observers of the flight.

Officers wishing to compete must send in their names to the Royal Aero Club, 166, Piccadilly, London, W., together with an entrance fee of 20s., after which they are at liberty to start

turer only guarantees his work for a limited period one may be perfectly sure that period will not be under estimated, and after the lapse of the guarantee a careful examination ought to be made.

One manufacturer, who has supplied a large number of monoplanes to the French Government, will only answer for the constructional safety of his wings for a period of two months after delivery; that is, two months of fairly hard work. Despite this, several of these machines have been flying unexamined for over twelve months. Is it to be wondered at that accidents happen occasionally from the collapse of wings?

These remarks apply equally to England. As our officers learn to fly at their own expense, and then, though employed for the specific purpose of flying, frequently have no machines to fly, they are reasonably safe from fatal accidents. But a time will come, and probably quite soon, when the Government will really acquire certain useful aeroplanes.

It is advisable, therefore, before launching out on a large scale, to frame regulations which, without being grandmotherly, will be a reasonable safeguard against accidents. Also opportunity should be taken to so organise the force that it will have opportunities of becoming highly efficient and of expanding easily.

Our Air Battalion must be as capable in its knowledge of the practice of aviation as are the gunners in the manipulation of their guns and the sappers in the designing and digging of drains.

at any time they please, subject to the necessary arrangements for observers having been made.

THE MICHELIN TYRE COMPANY has presented to the Royal Aero Club of the United Kingdom, for competition by British aviators, the sum of £600, to which will be added a trophy to be retained by the winner.

The winner for the year 1912 shall be the competitor who, on October 15th, 1912, shall have completed a prescribed circuit of about 186 miles on an aeroplane in flight in the fastest time, reckoned in miles per hour.

Competitors may select their own circuit of about 186 miles, but the start must be made from a flying-ground approved by the Royal Aero Club, and the proposed circuit must be submitted to the Royal Aero Club before the flight is made.

The complete circuit must be accomplished without alighting.

A number must be prominently displayed on the aeroplane in places approved by the officials, and when flying round each of the points selected in the circuit the aviator must fly sufficiently low so that his number may be easily verified by the official observer.

The circuit must be completed between the hours of sunrise and sunset on any one day.

The entrant, who must be the person operating the machine, must be a British subject, flying on a British-made aeroplane, must hold an aviator's certificate and must be duly entered on the competitors' register of the Royal Aero Club.

The complete machine and all its parts must have been entirely constructed within the confines of the British Empire, but this provision shall not be held to apply to raw material.

An entrance fee of 1 must accompany every notification of an attempt, and at least three clear days' notice must be given to the Secretary, Royal Aero Club, 166, Piccadilly, London, W. A competitor must further deposit a sum of £10 on account of expenses, if any, of observers. Any balance not so expended will be returned to the competitor.

The Atlantic Flight.

It is reported from the United States of America that, in addition to Mr. Martin's scheme, which was first announced in THE AEROPLANE, an attempt is to be made to cross the Atlantic by Mr. Harry Atwood, who distinguished himself last year by a flight from St. Louis to New York in unfavourable weather. He has ordered a hydro-aeroplane of new design, which is expected to attain a speed of over eighty miles an hour. At this speed he estimates the time occupied in flying from Newfoundland to the West Coast of Ireland will be thirty hours. He will start at about eight o'clock some evening in April, and he intends to follow the mail route. His mechanic will accompany him. The only details of construction at present mentioned are that his machine will have two propellers driven by a 150 h.p. engine. The distance to be covered is put down as 2,450 miles. That is to say, he expects to maintain a constant speed of at least eighty miles an hour, carrying sufficient fuel for a 150 h.p. motor. It seems scarcely within the region of probability under present conditions

The efficiency of an aeroplane is concerned with three factors: weight, speed, and horse-power. It is important that a student of the subject should remember that in any machine there are several efficiencies, a large range of speeds, various weights, and at least two distinct maxima of horse-power, so that these terms need careful consideration.

First as to efficiencies: we have the efficiency of the planes as weight carriers at a given speed, efficiency in lift-drift ratio, efficiency of the whole machine as a weight-lifting contrivance, and other varieties. I am taking in this article the efficiency entirely from the practical point of view. With this object I propose to take as my weight the actual "live load "i.e., the weight of passengers or goods carried, excluding even the weight of fuel used; for the aim of a designer is to increase the possible live load while diminishing the weight of machine, fuel, and oil.

The horse-power is the unit, originally fixed by James Watt, in which, in this country, power is measured. Just as we speak of a length of so many yards, each yard being 36 inches, so we say a power of so many h.p., each h.p. being 550 ft.-lbs. per second. Continuing the somewhat homely example, we find that, during one crowded half-second of strenuous life, I was exerting a power of 2 h.p.

The horse-power is that given by the engine: for, although it may be justly contended that the power which drives the machine is the power given out by the propeller, it must be remembered that the power which, by its consumption of fuel, limits the radius of action is the power given by the engine

The Practical Application.

In the case of an aeroplane, the actual power used is represented by the product of the speed in feet per second, and, the thrust. Now, the thrust itself is governed by the efficiency of the machine, being equal to the weight multiplied by this efficiency. So that we have two distinct figures representing power: first, the power of the engine as found on the brake; second, a value obtained by multiplying together the useful load and the speed in feet per second. This must be divided by 550 to reduce it to h.p., or, if the speed is given in m.p.h., it must be divided by 375. The ratio of these two figures gives the comparative efficiency of the machine.

The speed of the machine is that sustained (in calm air, of course) in horizontal flight when using the stated horse-power. I express it in this manner for the following reason: a machine with a reserve of power may be rated as of, say, either 60 or 80 horse-power. At full speed, perhaps, it will fly at 70 m.p.h., this will fall to 55 m.p.h. at 60 horse-power. It would obviously stultify the reasoning if the efficiency were calculated on the basis of 70 m.p.h. with 60 h.p., or vice versa.

What Efficiency Means.

So that finally, to find the "efficiency factor" of any machine, all that is necessary is to proceed as follows:-Multiply the useful load by the speed in miles per hour, divide by the engine horse-power, and again by 375; or, to put the matter in what is, after all, the most explicit form,

In order to get a proper understanding of the meaning of "efficiency," it is necessary to understand thoroughly the meaning of horse-power and work done. Work is done by moving a force through a distance. If, for example, I place my foot in the pit of an opponent's stomach and push him steadily backwards for ten feet, and if I ascertain that his passive resistance to this movement is 55 lbs., then the work I do is 550 ft.-lbs.

Power is the rate of doing work, or, in other words, the speed at which the force is moved-i.e., if my opponent carries out his retreat at the foot's point in the time of sec., then I have exerted on him a power of 1,100 ft.-lbs. per second.

e=

W V

375 P'

where e efficiency factor, w= useful load, v=speed, and b=horse-power.

500 Hbs

The curves herewith, which, to my grief, have been irreverently referred to as a parrot-cage, give the result without calculation. They are to be used as follows:

Follow the sloping line of useful load (down from right to left) till it cuts the horizontal line of speed, follow the vertical line till it cuts the sloping line of horse-power (up from right to left). Follow the horizontal line to the right to find efficiency. Example A: Farman type machine.-Useful load 2 persons and fuel, say, 400 lbs., speed 40 m.p.h., h.p. 50, efficiency .86. Example B: Nieuport 1-seater.-Useful load 1 person and fuel, say, 300 lbs., speed 70 m.p.h., h.p. 35, efficiency 1.43.

30P

60 IP

80H

901

50HP

100HP

1:6B

THE AEROPLANE is officially informed that the business of Mr. Howard T. Wright has been taken over by the Coventry Ordnance Works, Ltd. The construction of aeroplanes will be continued as usual at Mr. Howard Wright's works at Battersea for some time, though, in due course, building will be undertaken at Coventry, where immense facilities are available. The flying and testing of machines will be continued at Brooklands. The official title of the new business is the Aviation Department, The Coventry Ordnance Works, Limited.

This movement is actually one of the most important things which has occurred in the development of British aviation. Mr. Howard Wright is one of the pioneers of aeroplane construction in this country, and has always been noted for turning out sound, workmanlike machines, which have invariably flown exceedingly well. Like all the earlier British constructors, he has not been able to indulge in big schemes such as those tackled by the huge French firms, simply because he has had to let his business develop itself gradually. Now, however, backed by the immense resources of the Coventry Ordnance Works, which are governed by that extremely able officer, Admiral R. H. Bacon, Mr. Howard Wright should be able to show all and sundry what a really capable constructor can do.

It is eminently satisfactory to note that the whole staff of Mr. Howard Wright's business is being taken over with the business. This means that Mr. W. O. Manning, who is generally regarded by those closely in touch with aviation as a scientific designer of an ability which closely approximates

Further Movements at Hendon.

The many friends of Mr. Clement Greswell will be glad to hear that after some months of dissociation from the GrahameWhite Aviation Company he has returned to Hendon to resume the instruction of pupils. In the interim Mr. Greswell has been down in Devonshire quietly assisting a well-known Devonshire landowner in studying the art of flying, and it is probable that ere long the latter gentleman will be taking a very active part in fostering British aviation.

Mr. Clement Greswell, again Chief Pilot at the Grahame-White School,

to, and quite possibly reaches, real genius, will have an opportunity of giving to the world some of those ideas which some of us know to have been developing in his mind during the past year. Hitherto Mr. Manning has been obliged to design machines of the popular types demanded by customers, but the writer happens to know that Mr. Howard Wright and he have been for some months working on the designs of a new biplane which will be something quite out of the ordinary.

This machine is being slightly modified in order to comply with the conditions of the War Office Competition, but that will not interfere with its basic principles.

THE AEROPLANE is also able to announce that the chief pilot of this new and powerful combination is to be Mr. T. O. M. Sopwith, and certainly no finer flyer could be found to exhibit the best qualities of the machines. It will, of course, be remembered that Mr. Sopwith has already done some wonderful flights on Howard Wright machines, including the winning of the £4,000 De Forest prize, when he broke the world's record for a non-stop cross-country flight, and incidentally became the first man to fly an all-British machine across the Channel, and the first to fly from England to Belgium.

Taking it all round, the alliance of Admiral Bacon, Mr. Howard Wright, Mr. Manning, and Mr. Sopwith ought to have notable effect in the War Office Competition, and should reap handsome rewards both from the Army and the Navy when at last our aerial defences begin to be put on something like an adequate footing.

Mr. Richard Gates has certainly done well in again securing Mr. Greswell's services as instructor, for, though still young, he is a fine, steady flyer, who thoroughly understands his machines, and he has a personality which inspires confidence in his pupils, as well as putting them at once on friendly terms with him.

The renewal to the former association of Mr. Greswell and the Grahame-White Company must, therefore, be eminently satisfactory to those who wish well to the Hendon Aerodrome, where, since Mr. Grahame-White's business has kept him so much in the United States, there has not been quite the continuity of instruction by one pilot which is advisable if pupils are to be got through quickly for their certificates. And, of course, when Mr. Grahame-White returns, he and Mr. Greswell will be able to give pupils particularly good training.

Moreover, there are now plenty of machines in excellent order in the Grahame-White sheds, and the workshops are splendidly equipped to handle repairs to both machines and engines, so pupils are sure to find not only excellent instruction, but what is, if anything, more necessary, sufficient machines for school purposes, so that if a machine is temporarily laid up for repairs there need be no stopping of school work.

Among the machines available for school work at present are the "American Farman, which Mr. Grahame-White flew in the States; a British-built biplane of Farman type, which has been thoroughly overhauled; a Sommer biplane, which has done hardly any work so far; Mr. Grahame-White's 100 h.p. Blériot, which will probably be fitted with a 50 h.p. engine for ordinary flying; and an older Blériot, which will be fitted with an Anzani engine for school work. In addition Mr. GrahameWhite's 70 h.p. two-seater Nieuport will be returning from America in the near future, and should make a particularly fascinating machine for passenger flying, for those whose ambitions go beyond wallowing round an aerodrome on the edge of a box-kite, a form of amusement which may be well enough for pupils in their early stages, but is not real flying. Altogether, with any luck, the Grahame-White Company should be able to put a number of pupils through at once for their certificates either on monoplanes or biplanes, and do it in quick time, too.

The War Office Trials.

THE AEROPLANE is able to state on reliable authority that the War Office Competition will commence towards the end of July. Though the authorities were anxious to meet the wishes. of the British constructors, so as to give them a fair chance of good weather in which to tune their machines, it was found that September was impossible owing to army manoeuvres. Consequently it was decided to start the competition in July, so as to get everything finished by the end of August, and permit those of the machines which might be purchased by the War Office to be used on manoeuvres in September.

Monday, January 1st.

The

BROOKLANDS.-Sippe, on Avro-Viale, went for first part of brevêt. Did turns in good style, and finished with glide from 290 or 300 feet, with engine cut off. Made straight for observers, who fled, consequently landed too far from original spot chosen. Tried landing test again, and succeeded admirably. Second test postponed owing to weather. Setti also out on Avro-Viale, doing straights.

At Deperdussin School, Lieut. Porte, R.N., out testing rebuilt brevêt machine, now repaired after Baldwin's smash. Lieut. Gill, R.A., and Signor Sabelli out afterwards.

Bloudeau up with Lieut. Ash, R.N., a new pupil; and Lieut. Hewlett, R.N., also out on Blondeau-Hewlett biplane. Herbert Spencer up alone, doing test flights.

At Bristol school, Fleming up at 3,000 feet testing, and later up with Lieut. Smith over Weybridge, when Gnôme struck work, but managed to glide back into the aerodrome. Bad day for Gnômes, as both of the Bristols and the Blondeau engines giving trouble.

HENDON.-New Year opened with return of Mr. Clement Greswell, who soon had school Farman No. 2 out, and made couple of circuits, prior to taking up lady passenger; and, in spite of inclement weather, school has been busy.

During week Mr. Henry C. Biard, a new pupil, has been out whenever possible, and is making rapid progress, taking full charge of machine with 50 h.p. Gnôme, and is seemingly thoroughly conversant with the controls already. Gates has been making good straights, with fine, steady landings; and Raphaite continues to improve in rolling practice and in knowledge of the controls. Many of machines have been tested after thorough overhauling, and spell of anything like decent weather should see some good work put in.

At Blériot school Allen doing circuits, Desoutter doing figures of eight. Morris and Welburn making excellent straight flights.

FILEY.-The New Year begun by Mr. Blackburn and Brereton, new pilot, late of the Bristol school, when manœuvres were executed in grand style. The rest of week spent in overhauling machines in hangars, as pupils have not yet returned from holidays.

rather too soon, machine began to pancake, so, with great presence of mind, switched on again, and made excellent landing. Very good for a beginner. Fleming also out with various pupils.

Blondeau out with Lieut. Ash, R.N., and Lieut. Hewlett flying well alone.

HENDON.-Allen, Desoutter, Morris, and Welburn all flying on Blériots. Pothet and Gordon Jones making steady progress. THE PLAIN. Jullerot out in morning, giving lesson to Lieut. Brodigan on Bristol school machine. Later in week, H. R. Fleming arrived from Brooklands to learn to fly monoplane, C. P. Pizey having returned to take up instruction

there.

new

mono

THE PLAIN (Air Battalion).-Captain Fulton and Lieut. Conner out doing flights of half-hour or so, at good height. BRIGHTON-SHOREHAM.-Mr. M. Chanter had plane out again and obtained further successful flight. Wednesday, January 3rd.

BROOKLANDS.-Kemp out on Vickers, tuning up after alterations in engine. Sippe flying capitally as usual on AvroViale.

At Deperdussin school, Lieut. Gill, R.A., made first complete circuit on brevêt machine, Sabelli afterwards making three circuits on same, both pupils showing excellent progress and ability.

At Bristol school, Pizey, back from the Plain, up with Lieut. Smith. Naval Cadet Wheeler, the youngest British pilot, down for practice flying while on leave, flying magnificently, and took machine up to 2,500 feet with perfect skill and confidence.

Herbert Spencer again out alone, tuning up engine trouble. BRIGHTON-SHOREHAM.-Mr. M. Chanter flying of

Blériots and Chanter monoplane.
Thursday, January 4th.

one

BROOKLANDS.-Wind and rain. Nothing doing. BRIGHTON-SHOREHAM.-Gassler doing straight flights on Chanter school Blériot in early morning.

Friday, January 5th.

BROOKLANDS.-More wind and more rain. Saturday, January 6th.

BROOKLANDS. Still more rain and wind. Work generally progressing well, and prospects of flying as soon as fine weather arrives are excellent. Flanders monoplane nearly ready to appear again. New planes, built on novel principle, evidently immensely strong and possessing huge factor of safety. Streamline of fuselage improved, and radiators better placed.