describing on each side of the ecliptick a parallel | are so active as serpents, or can transport themselves circle at the distance of eight degrees broad, called the Zodiack, as described above.

OF THE EQUINOXES AND SOLSTICES.

1.-EQUINOXES.

There are two equinoxes, the Vernal and the Autumnal. The VERNAL EQUINOX is when the sun enters Aries, which commonly happens about the 21st of March. The sun then rises due east at six in the morning, and sets due west at six in the evening, all over the world, the Frigid zones excepted; consequently, the day and night are of an equal length; namely, twelve hours each.

The AUTUMNAL EQUINOX is when the sun enters Libra, generally on the 23d of September. The time of the sun's rising and setting, and the length of the day and night, are then the same as at the Vernal Equinox.

2. OF THE SOLSTICES.

from place to place with equal agility. Whether to seize its prey, or escape from danger, the serpent moves with the velocity of an arrow, and surpasses several species of birds in the ease and rapidity with which it gains the summits of the highest trees, twisting and untwisting its flexible body around their trunks and branches with such celerity, that the quickest eye can scarcely follow its rapid motion. Their size greatly varies; some are but a few inches long, while others are forty or even fifty feet in length. All are covered with scales, or scaly tubercles. Their brain case is weak and shallow; and hence serpents are easily killed by a blow on the head. The formation and conjunction of the vertebra are well adapted for mobility.

All parts of their body have great force, agility, and elasticity. They are most abundant in warm and temperate regions; but increase in size and numbers, in proportion to the heat and moisture, and to the freedom of their range. They have less The SUMMER SOLSTICE is when the sun enters interiour activity of system. They are more animablood than quadrupeds, a lower animal heat, and less Cancer, generally on the 22d of June. The inhabited in times of tempest and hurricane, when the tants of the Northern Hemisphere have then their electricity of the atmosphere is in the greatest perlongest days and shortest nights; but those of the turbation. Their sense of hearing is dull, but their Southern Hemisphere the contrary.

The WINTER SOLSTICE is when the sun enters Capricorn, generally on the 22d of December. The inhabitants of the Southern Hemisphere have then their longest days and shortest nights; but those of the Northern Hemisphere the contrary.

Obs. The term Solstice is derived from the Latin word solstitium, it being that time when the sun is at the greatest distance from the equator, and is thus called, because the sun then appears to stand still, and not to change his distance from the equator for some time,—an appearance owing to the obliquity of our sphere, and to which those living under the equator are strangers.

NATURAL HISTORY.

SERPENTS.

considerable delicacy, as the tongue is very slender, vision acute. Their sense of taste is probably of and divided into two joints, which admit of its being readily applied to sapid* bodies. Their sense of touch is probably obscure. They give many indications of high instinct and sensibility, and have the faculty of existing a long period without food.

They have no voice, but a hiss, which is uttered softer or stronger according to the exciting cause. It is exerted exclusively in the declaration of their fiercer passions-the milder sensibilities are not accompanied by any vocal annunciation.

Serpents have great strength from the peculiar construction of their body. They are very tenacious of life. They have been, from all antiquity, and in most countries, celebrated for their great cunning and sagacity; which is chiefly displayed in their mode of evading their enemies, or of obtaining their prey Some serpents are eminently noted for their brilliant colours, of which several display fine iridescent

THEIR MODE OF ATTACK, AND AN ACCOUNT OF THEIR changes. It is a curious distinction of those animals,

POISON.

The serpent tribes are distinguished from all other animals by a peculiar character, in which their figure, motion, and habits, so repulsive and disgusting, form a striking contrast to the beautiful and variegated colours with which their skin is studded, adding, if possible, to their subtle and venomous appearance; while their crawling motion strikingly exemplifies the decree of the Creator, made after the temptation and fall of man:-"Because thou hast done this, cursed art thou above all cattle, and every bird of the field; upon thy belly shalt thou go, and dust thou shalt eat all the days of thy life."

The tribes are very numerous, and have been divided by La Cepede into eight genera, each of which are subdivided, and contain many species. The genera comprise the Boas, containing 11 species; the Rattlesnake, 6 species; the Vipers, 196 species; the Snakes, 24 species; the Amphisbona, 5 species; Langrata, 1; Cæcilia, 2; and Acrochord, 1. Although destitute of feet and wings, few animals

which has lately been made by M. de la Borde, of Cayenne, that all the species of serpents of which the young are hatched within the mother, and which are therefore born alive, are venomous.

Many of the serpents are totally harmless. They only offer to our consideration agile movements, elegant and light proportions, and soft and brilliant colours. They are an addition to the ornaments of the fields; and help, with the other animated beings, to embellish the vast and magnificent theatre of vernal nature.

Of the others, the enormous and deadly boa twists itself round calves, and sheep, and goats, to crush their bones; and then poisoning them with its fangs, swallows them whole. It has been seen to overcome the buffalo, and even the tiger, in this way, though not till after a desperate struggle, (see engraving). The rattlesnake, cerastes, viper, &c., are all of the same destructive habits.†

* Tasteful-palatable.

+ See Turner's Sacred History of the Earth

The poison fangs of serpents are two teeth, fixed charged into the poison-bag. This consists of musin the upper jaw, which answer to the canine teeth cular fibres, both longitudinal and circular, by which of quadrupeds. Their form and functions were first it contracts when the fangs are erected, and by this demonstrated by Dr. Mead, in his work on Poisons. contraction the poison is pressed into the hole at the He says, "They are manifestly hollow from their root of the tooth, and forced out at the aperture near root, a considerable way, not to the very apex, or the point.

point (which is solid and sharp, the better to pierce The poison itself is an acid with many saline inthe skin), but to a small distance from it, as is plainly gredients, which rapidly crystallize on exposure to seen by splitting the tooth through the middle. This the atmosphere. It exists only in small quantities. tubular cavity ends at the front of the tooth in a but a very small drop is sufficiert to produce death. small slit, which is the emissary, or outlet, of the In the engraving, a full grown boa constrictor is poison." represented destroying a tiger. Its mode of proceGalen has given us a considerable hint of this dure is as follows:-The serpent lies coiled in the make of the tooth: for "the mountebanks," he says, top of some lofty tree, where, hid from observation, "used to suffer themselves to be bit by vipers, hav-it securely watches every thing that passes beneath. ing first with some paste stopped the holes of their Should an animal, a tiger for example, approach the teeth, that the venom being kept in, the spectators spot, and the appetite of the serpent be strong, it might think they did, by their antidotes, secure them- cautiously descends to within a proper distance, selves from its dangerous effects." fastens its tail by several folds to a branch, and thus

The poison tooth is connected with a very beau- fixed, throws its whole length upon the astonished tiful chain of bones, which, by the assistance of ap- animal, coils with inconceivable rapidity round his propriate muscles, raise it for inflicting the bite. body, and striking his fangs deep into the flesh, instils Before and after that, it lies folded back in the the "cruel venom." Convulsions, sickness, and mouth. death follow. The serpent then coils itself round The poison is secreted in two conglobate glands, the body of its victim, and by a tremendous exertion which lie one on each side of the head; and is car- of muscular power, crushes the bones, and reduces ried by ducts to the root of the fangs, where it is dis- the whole to a cylindrical form, and then covering

it with slime, slowly swallows it. Having thus or longer period, in some cases exceeding two gorged his prey, he lies in a torpid state, for a shorter months.

The ruminant animals abound in our country. The the whole of the continent. The common deer is deer species come along the first to our notice. The moose was formerly found in all parts of New England, but is now confined to Maine, and the N. W. Territory, and is there becoming unfrequent. Judging from the rapid diminution of this species within a few years, it is feared that it will at no great distance of time be exterminated. The American elk is a stately and beautiful animal, which it is believed at some period ranged over the larger portion if not

the smallest American species at present known, and is found throughout the country between Canada, in the north, and the banks of the Orinoco in South America. It has always been of great importance to the aborigines, as an abundant source of food and raiment: nor has its value been less to the pioneers of civilization, in their advances into the untrodden solitudes of the west. The improvements in agriculture have long since rendered this supply of food

of comparatively little value to the white man; yet Anaxagoras, the preceptor to Pericles, Socrates, vast numbers of this species are annually destroyed, and Euripides, was one of his disciples; but the for the sake of its flesh, hide, and horns. Notwith-honour and glory of his school was the famous Socstanding this extreme consumption, the species does rates, the wisest, most virtuous, and perhaps the not appear to be rapidly diminishing, if we except most perfect of men. the immediate vicinity of very thickly-peopled districts. Even in those places where the destruction of the deer during the breeding season is prevented by law, the increase seems quite equal to the demand; and such humane and judicious provisions will probably preserve this beautiful race to adorn our forests, long after the species is exterminated, in situations where it is not thus protected.

Anaxagoras disregarded wealth and honours, to indulge his fondness for meditation and philosophy. He also travelled into Egypt for improvement, and used to say, that he preferred a grain of wisdom to a heap of gold. He applied himself much to astronomy, and was acquainted with eclipses; but his ideas concerning the heavens were wild and extravagant. Pericles often consulted him in matters of state; and once dissuaded him from starving himself to death.

Socrates was the creator of fine morals, and foretold immortal truths. He believed in the unity of God, in the immortality of the soul, and in the rewards and punishments of another life.

Socrates had a number of distinguished disciples; among whom were Antisthenes, Alcibiades, Xenophon, Aristipes, and Euclides, but the most famous of all was Plato.

The black-tailed deer, represented by our cut, and sometimes termed the mule deer, is also a native of North America. It inhabits the sides of the mountains, in the districts frequented by immense herds of buffaloes, and also by the wapti and large moose deer. The French Canadians call it Chevreuil,' while the people of Hudson's Bay denominate it the 'jumping deer.' It is found only to the westward of 105° west longitude, and goes no farther north than the bank of the river Sadcatchewan, in latitude 54°. It is occasionally hunted by the Indians in that quar- Socrates was a native of Athens, and was born ter, and begins to attract some attention from the about 451 years B. C. He was fond of labour, and traders, since information has been given respecting so inured himself to suffer hardships, that he acquirit by Lewis and Clark. It was almost unknown pre-ed that serenity of mind, and firmness of manner, vious to their expedition. which the most alarming dangers could never destroy, nor the most sudden calamities surprise, nor even move.

When roused, this deer makes off by a series of uninterrupted bounds, raising all its feet from the ground at once, and vibrating its black-tipped tail. from side to side. The height of a full grown doe, has been found to be rather less than two feet and a half.

Many celebrated men point out divers tracks to arrive at wisdom and happiness, and the difference of their principles gives rise to a great number of sects, of which the following are the most famous. The Greeks possessed two principal schools: viz., the Ionick and Italick; the former was founded by Thales, of Ionia, the latter by Pythagoras, of the island of Samos, who quitted his native country, and afterwards fixed himself in Italy; hence its name Italick.

The first of these sects was that founded by Thales, who flourished about the year 680 before the Christian era. Thales was a native of Miletus in Ionia, hence his followers assumed the name of Ionick.

Thales was one of the seven wise men of Greece. He was descended from Cadmus. Like the rest of the ancients, he travelled in quest of knowledge, and for some time resided in Crete, Phoenicia, and Egypt.

He was the first who studied the stars, calculated with accuracy a solar eclipse, and fixed the measure of time. Like Homer, he looked upon water as the principle of all natural things. His followers are called the Ionick sect.

VOL. III.-33

He was always attended by a great number of illustrious pupils, whom he instructed by his exemplary life, as well as by his doctrines. The philosophy of this great man forms an interesting epoch in the history of the human mind.

His actions, sayings, and opinions have been faithfully recorded by two of the most celebrated of his pupils, Xenophon and Plato. It was to the examples set by Socrates that the Greeks were particularly indebted for their greatness and splendour.

Plato was also a native of Athens, but he did not confine himself, like his master, Socrates, to the subject of morals alone, but studied every branch of philosophy.

His thirst after knowledge prompted him to travel into Egypt, Italy, Sicily, and Persia, where he acquired various branches of knowledge, generally

unknown.

Plato is the founder of what is called the Aca

demician sect. His works are numerous, and excepting twelve letters, are all written in dialogue. They abound with the most lofty sentiments, and with the most useful maxims for the conduct of life, and for the science of government. His principal works were a Discourse on the Immortality of the Soul, and a Treatise on the Republick.

He was succeeded in his school by his nephew Spensippas. But his scholars after his death, distinguished themselves into two sects, the followers of the one continuing the name of Academicians, and to teach in the same place where Plato had taught; and those of the other, that of Peripateticks, who gave their lessons in the Lyceum.

Of the numerous disciples of Plato, Aristotle, preceptor of Alexander the Great, was the most famous. He was a native of Stagira, a city of Macedonia. He was born 384 B. C.

Aristotle first went to Athens to study philosophy

under Plato, at the age of seventeen; and applied | The true Stoick follows virtue by instinct, and prac himself with such industry and success in acquiring tises good by choice. his master's doctrines, that he soon became the soul of his school.

After spending several years in the education of Alexander, he returned to Athens, and opened a school in the Lyceum, where he founded the sect called the Peripatetick, so named because he was accustomed to give his lessons walking. His lectures drew together a vast crowd of hearers.

He is looked upon as the greatest and soundest genius of antiquity. His works are also very numerous, but the most esteemed are his treatises on logick, rhetorick, poetry, and politicks. His treatise on rhetorick has been justly regarded by the learned of all ages as the most accurate and complete that has ever yet appeared.

Aristotle met with the fate of most great men. He attracted the envy of his contemporaries, who accused him of impiety. To disappoint the malice of his enemies, and to avoid the unhappy fate of Socrates, he fled to the island of Euboea, where he survived his retreat from Athens only a few months, when vexation and regret are supposed to have ended his days.

Antisthenes, an Athenian was the founder of the Cynick sect; he placed happiness in virtue, and virtue in the contempt of riches and enjoyments of life. He taught rhetorick, and had among his pupils the famous Diogenes; but when he had heard Socrates, he shut up his school, and said to his pupils, "Go, seek for yourselves a master; I have now found one."

He approaches nearest to the divinity; in a word, he is the perfect sage, who perhaps never existed. Among the most illustrious followers of his doctrine, and as the most respectable writers, were Epictetus and Seneca.

The finest characters of antiquity, Epaminondas, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius, professed the maxims of the Stoick school, which ought particularly to be that of sovereigns, and of all who conduct or gov

ern men.

Zeno was born about 300 years before the Christian era. His native place, Cyprus, having been originally peopled by a colony of Phoenicians, he is sometimes called a Phoenician.

The place he made use of for his school was a publick portico, which was adorned with the pictures of the most eminent painters.

It was the most famous portico in Athens, and called by way of eminence "The Porch." It was from this circumstance that the followers of Zeno were called Stoicks.

The Italick school was founded by Pythagoras, about the year 500 before the Christian era. He did much honour to Greece, and much good to Italy.

He is said to have travelled into Egypt, Phoenicia, Chaldea, and India, in quest of knowledge. Though a great geometrician and astronomer, he looked upon virtue as the first of all the sciences.

After having taught some time in Greece, he went into that part of Italy which is called Magna Græcia, on account of the colonies which had settled there.

One of his pupils asked him what philosophy had He resided chiefly at Crotona and Tarentum, taught him? "To live with myself," said he. He where he openly harangued in the cause of virtue, sold his all, and preserved only a very ragged coat, and produced a great revolution in the ideas and which drew the attention of Socrates, and tempted manners of the people. him to say to the Cynick, who carried his contempt of dress too far, "Antisthenes, I see thy vanity through the holes of thy coat."

His opinion was, that there were but five things which ought to be combated; viz., the diseases of the body, the ignorance of the mind, the passions Diogenes, his disciple, carried these maxims even of the heart, seditions in cities, and discord in prito delirium, and personal independence to the forget-vate families. fulness of all decorum.

He dressed himself in the garment which distinguished their sect, and walked about the streets with a tub on his head, which served him as a house, and a place of repose.

Such singularity of conduct soon gained him reputation, and Alexander the Great condescended to visit the philosopher in his tub.

He asked Diogenes if there were any thing in which he could oblige him: "Get out of my light," was the only answer which the philosopher gave him.

Such an independence of mind so pleased the monarch, that he turned to his courtiers and said, "Were I not Alexander, I would wish to be Diogenes."

The doctrines of austerity of this sect were followed no longer than Antisthenes and Diogenes were themselves examples of the cynical character; and after their death they were all forgotten.

Zeno, a native of the island of Cyprus, was the founder of the sect called the Stoicks. This sect may be said to be the Cynick reproduced, but stripped of its vices, and adorned with all its virtues.

The Stoick sect is the most noble that man can follow, and the most capable of ennobling humanity.

Pythagoras introduced into the Western world a doctrine which he had imbibed somewhere in the East, where it had prevailed from the most early ages.

This doctrine was the transmigration of souls from one body into another; as, for example, if a man were vicious and wicked, his soul animated the body of some unclean animal, and passed through a progress of misery proportioned to his crimes in this life.

Hence Pythagoras and his followers, religiously abstained from eating flesh, lest they should devour that of their former friends and acquaintance.

The accounts of this philosophy which have been transmitted to us, are, in all probability, very imperfect; and in nothing, perhaps, more so than in its real scope and meaning. Let us, therefore, on this point, as on every other of the same kind, be extremely cautious in condemning. As it at present stands, it appears truly ridiculous and absurd.

Epicurus, a celebrated philosopher and founder of the Epicurean sect, was a native of Gargettus, in Attica. Though of poor parents, and of an obscure origin, he was sent early to school, where he soon distinguished himself by the brilliancy of his genius. The doctrine originally maintained by Epicurus