conformity with this principle, we find among ourselves an instinctive preference given to farinaceous and fatty foods, or to nitrogenous foods, according as our occupations require a steady long-continued slow labour, or the exercise of sudden bursts of muscular labour continued for short periods."-(HAUGHTON, Address at Oxford, 1868.)

In training, the diet is almost exclusively meat, bread, and beer. Beef and mutton are the meats usually taken, and it is important that these be not overcooked. It is not necessary to exclude all the fat. Stale bread, potatoes, and a little green vegetable are allowed in conjunction. Pickles, sauces, &c., are to be prohibited, and sweets, pastry, and made dishes avoided. Small quantities only of fluids should be taken, and these sipped slowly to allow of absorption and thus satisfy thirst, without introducing a surplus amount into the stomach. Beer, light wines, tea, coffee, cocoa, barley-water, and toast-andwater are the fluids usually recommended. Spirits are rigorously excluded, and water alone is looked upon with some suspicion.

The following are a few of the dietaries used in training:

King, in training, is said to have taken for his breakfast two lean mutton chops, somewhat underdone, with dry toast or stale bread, and a single cup of tea without sugar; for dinner, 1 lb. or 14 lb. of beef or mutton, with toast or stale bread, and very little potato or other vegetable, and half a pint of old ale, or a glass or two of sherry; for tea, a single cup of unsweetened tea, with an egg and some dry toast; and for supper, half a pint of oatmeal porridge, or half a pint of old ale.

"The effect of this," says Letheby, "is to produce only a shortlived state of effectiveness, for, carried a little beyond the appointed time, it leads to disease; and even after such a training there is often, as in the case of Heenan, terrible prostration of the system, and a necessity for returning immediately to an ordinary diet."

The Oxford System.

A Day's Training for the Summer Races.— Rise about 7 A.M. A short walk or run. Breakfast at 8:30, of meat (beef or mutton, underdone), bread (the crust only recommended), or dry toast, and tea (as little as possible recommended). Dinner at 2 P.M., of meat (much the same as for breakfast), bread and no vegetables (a rule, however, not always adhered to), with one pint of beer. About 5 a row twice over the course on the river, the speed being increased with the strength of the Supper at 8:30 or 9, of cold meat and

crew.

bread, with perhaps a jelly or water-cresses, and one pint of beer. Retire to bed about 10.

A Day's Training for the Winter Races.— Rise about 7:30 a.m. A short walk or run. Breakfast at 9, as for the summer races. Luncheon about 1, of bread or a sandwich, and half a pint of beer. About 2 row twice over the course. Dinner at 5, of meat, as for summer races; bread, vegetables, the same rule as for the summer races; pudding (rice) or jelly, and half a pint of beer. It is particularly impressed on men in training that as little liquid as possible is to be drunk-water being strictly forbidden.

The Cambridge System.

A Day's Training for the Summer Races.Rise at 7 A.M. A run of 100 or 200 yards, as fast as possible. Breakfast at 8:30, of meat (beef or mutton, underdone), dry toast, tea (two cups, or towards the end of training a cup and a half only), and water-cresses occasionally. Dinner about 2, of meat (beef or mutton), bread, vegetables-potatoes, greensand one pint of beer (some colleges have baked apples, jellies, or rice-puddings). Dessert, oranges, biscuits, or figs, with two glasses of wine. About 5:30 a row to the starting-post and back. Supper about 8:30 or 9, of cold meat, bread, vegetables - lettuce or watercresses - and one pint of beer. Retire to bed at 10.

A Day's Training for the Winter Races.Rise about 7 A.M. Exercise as for the summer

races.

races.

Breakfast at 8:30, as for the summer Luncheon about 1, of a little cold meat, bread, and half a pint of beer, or a biscuit with a glass of sherry-perhaps the yolk of an egg in the sherry. At 2 a row over the course and back. Dinner about 5 or 6, as for the summer races. Retire to bed about 10.

Tramways-An urban sanitary authority may construct tramways under a Board of Trade provisional order, or the authority may purchase tramways, and may lease and take tolls in respect of the same; but the autho rity is prohibited from working them.-(33 & 34 Vict. c. 78, s. 4, 6-16, &c.)

A tramway cannot be constructed without the consent of the urban sanitary authority.

The working of tramways is regulated by bylaws, which require the sanction of the Board of Trade (not of the Local Government Board).-(Ibid., s. 4, 46-48.)

In establishing tramways there are various restrictions protecting the interests of road, gas, water, telegraph, and sewer authorities. (Ibid., s. 26–33.)

The expenses are to be borne by the general rate; the money may, however, be borrowed (with consent of the Board of Trade) in a similar manner to other sanitary funds. -(Ibid., s. 20, Schedule A.)

cleaned, for the proverbial carelessness of domestics frequently renders the best mechanism useless by stuffing it with solid refuse.

Traps, Trapping-A trap, in a sanitary sense, is an apparatus affixed to the inlets of drains or sewers, so constructed as to prevent sewer gas from escaping into the air, but at the same time without impeding or obstructing the flow of liquids.

All sewers and drains (save and except those on the Liernur principle) require to be properly trapped and ventilated. The forms of traps in use are legion, but they are all on similar principles, and may be arranged into two classes-(1) those that interpose a body of water-an hydraulic seal between the atmosphere and the sewer; (2) those that interpose a solid body, such as a sheet of metal affixed to some mechanical arrangement.

The traps of the first class are usually automatic; the common siphon trap as affixed

SINK TRAP.

i

Fig. 121.

to a sink may be taken as an illustration (see fig. 121). It is evident that a layer of water will remain in the bend and prevent the gases escaping; but very little knowledge of the laws of fluids and gases is required to see that such an arrangement must, from time to time, get out of order; for if, on the one hand, the pipe runs full, the whole of the water will be sucked by a siphon action out of the trap; and if, on the other hand, a large quantity of gas is suddenly evolved in the drain or sewer, or a slight elevation of temperature takes place from the admission of hot liquids, the water is very likely to be driven out of the trap. Both these objections may, however, to a very considerable extent be obviated by inserting ventilating-pipes adjacent to important traps, or in the traps themselves.

Few traps will answer for all purposes; for example, those for drains carrying surfacewater, &c., from roads, especially in hilly districts, where in heavy rains an enormous quantity of débris is carried down, require to have in connection with them large sludgeboxes, and arrangements to prevent the pipes being silted up. The traps for kitchens, sinks, and yards should for the most part be so constructed as to be easily examined and

of this work; but as an example of an efficient hydraulic trap, Dean's patent drain trap, manufactured by Mr. J. C. Edwards of Ruabon, may be selected. It is made in a variety of forms-circular, square, and rectangular-and either double or single.

Figs. 122 and 123 show a section of a single and double trap. The double trap is generally used to trap externally sink or other house drains (except water-closet soil-pipes), and the single trap is for yard gulleys, cottage drains, &c. Many engineers, however, prefer the single trap for house drains, the trap being placed just outside the outer wall, and the sink or waste pipe discharging on to the top of grating. If, as is often the case, ventilation is necessary, the pipe next the outlet should be a junction, and a ventilatingpipe should be led therefrom to a suitable place.

It is made in two parts, the outer made of stoneware, and the inner a movable cast-iron receptacle B B, fitting into the bottom of the same, the configuration and construction being such that all solid matter must rest in the receptacle, which can be

easily and readily removed, emptied, and cleansed. GH are two dips, and form a double trap; for if by any great pressure the sewer gas should force under the dip G, H would immediately rise to the surface, so that it could not force under the seal H and enter the house. These traps are now very extensively used.

As an example of a trap on a mechanical principle, and certainly one of the best yet invented, Banner's patent drain trap may be described (see fig. 124).

The trap consists of a small air-tight chamber A of cast iron, or other material, fitted with a 4-inch inlet pipe B, which projects several inches into its interior; the lower end of this inlet, surrounded by an indiarubber band, sprung on and slightly projecting beyond the end of the

pipe, is closed and made air-tight by a copper cup C, of peculiar form, being pressed up to it by a suitable weight D mounted upon a lever fulcrumed on an air-tight centre, and hav ing its outer end bent upwards at a right angle. The weight is suspended by a link on the raised end of the lever, and is so arranged that when the pan is in the act of tilting C, the centre of gravity of the weight D' is brought nearer the fulcrum, thus reducing the load and allowing the pan C to remain tilted, without at any time unsealing the trap, till it is thoroughly flushed, yet retaining sufficient power to completely close the trap again after flushing. A series of holes in the raised end of the lever permits of a proper adjustment of the weight, and a bend in the soil-pipe, just above the trap, breaks the force of the water

reaching the latter from above. The lower part of the chamber E is formed with sloping sides, terminating in an outlet in connection

with the drain.

Before flushing, the cup when full weighs over 15 lbs., while the utmost weight opposed to it on the lever is less than 15 lbs.

After flushing, the cup and clean water left in it weigh under 7 lbs., while the weight on the lever after flushing is over 7 lbs.

The column of water in the soil-pipe B cannot rise more than 12 inches above the chamber, but the weight on the end of the lever is sufficient to maintain in the soil-pipe a permanent column of several inches of fresh overflow water, besides the clean water left in the

ing, till the closet is again used and its contents are discharged into the drain, when the copper pan filling again is again tilted and remains down sufficiently long to admit of a thorough flushing (but at no time unsealing the end of the inlet pipe, as will be seen from the dotted lines in figure 124, which shows the pan in its tilted position), after which the trap is brought back by the setion of the weighted lever to its normal position, when, besides the air-tight valve thus formed, there is a water seal of 3 inches in the cup, and several inches up the soil-pipe.

from the diameter of the inlet pipe above it

to 12 inches.

Mr. Banner has also devised a very ingenious apparatus for disinfecting a trap (see fig. 125). A is a glass vase holding 1 gallon of a disinfectant fluid; this is, in fact, the reservoir. The hollow tube B is fixed to a lead valve C, which has discs of indiarubber D attached to it above and below; EE are openings into and out of the small chamber A', which admit of its filling or emptying as the indiarubber discs rest upon the lower, or are held up to the upper, side of the small chamber A'; F is an air-hole, and G is the outlet pipe through which the regulated charge of disinfectant passes to the D trap, on the valve being raised by the action of the lever spring fixed on the bracket above the vase A.

It is obvious that with the valve in the position represented, the chamber A' is full of fluid; but upon raising the valve, the upper discs D D are closely applied to the openings from the reservoir, but leaving the lower openings E E open, the contents of the chamber A' are discharged into the trap.

But whether the forms of traps described are used or not, this is certain, that the common bell trap is, under the most favourable conditions, extremely inefficient; that with the common siphon traps ventilation of the traps, as well as disinfection from time to time, is as a rule necessary, and that all require occasional supervision. See SEWER.

Trees-See PENALTIES, PLANTATIONS.

Triohina Spiralis- A minute round worm, enclosed in a more or less transparent capsule, that has been found as a parasite in the muscular system of man and animals.

Fig 126.

Fig. 127.

of the parasite :The following is Dr Cobbold's description

1. The Trichina spiralis in its mature state is an extremely minute nematode helminthe; the male in measuring only of an inch, whilst the perfectlyits fully-developed and sexually-mature condition developed female reaches a length of about; body rounded and filiform, usually slightly bent upon itself, rather thicker behind than in front, especially in the males; head narrow, finely pointed, unarmed, with a simple, central, minute, oral aperture; posterior extremity of the male furnished with a bilobed situated between these divergent appendages; penis caudal appendage, the cloacal or anal aperture being consisting of a single specula cleft above, so as to assume a V-shaped outline. Female shorter than the male, bluntly rounded posteriorly, with the genital outlet placed far forward, at about the end of the first fifth of the long diameter of the body; eggs measuring from from pole to pole; mode of reproduction viviparous.

2. The sexually-mature trichina inhabits the intestinal canal of numerous warm-blooded animals, espe‐ cially mammalia (also of man), and constantly in great numbers.

3. At the second day after their introduction the intestinal trichina attain their full sexual maturity, lose their spiral figure, and become stretched, whilst they grow rapidly, and their generative organs are developed.

4. Most females contain from 300 to 500 ova. In six days the female parasites will contain perfectlydeveloped and free embryos in the interior, and these, on attaining full size, pass out at the vaginal open ing. The eggs of the female trichina are developed within the uterus of the mother into minute filarislike embryos, which, from their sixth day, are born without their eggshells.

5. The new-born young soon afterwards commence their wandering. They penetrate the walls of the intestines, and pass directly through the abdominal cavity into the muscles of their bearers, where, if the conditions are otherwise favourable, they are developed into the form hitherto known.

6. The direction in which they proceed is in the course of the intermuscular connective tissue.

7. The majority of the wandering embryos remain in those sheathed muscular groups which are nearest to the cavity of the body, the abdomen, and thorax, especially in those which are smaller and most sup plied with connective tissue.

8. The embryos penetrate into the interior of the separate muscular bundles, and here already, after fourteen days, acquire the size and organisation of the well-known Trichina spiralis.