to the caves. Representations of man and animal in the shape of carvings and statuettes in bone and ivory, sculptures in alto rilievo, line engravings on stone and bone, and mural paintings in polychrome, abound in all the caves of the Old Stone Age (Palæolithic Period). Sculpture preceded engraving and painting. The earliest known representations of the human figure have been found in the deposits of the Middle Aurignacian Period (40,000-16,000 B. C.). In 1908, Szombathy discovered, deep in the loess, at Willendorf, on the left bank of the Danube, a limestone statuette of a woman, about four and one-half inches high, representing a nude female figure of massive proportions, known as the "Venus of Willendorf." The gigantic breasts and buttocks (steatopygy) of the primitive woman are thrown into strong relief, the head is bowed over the breasts, so that the face is indistinguishable, the arms, ornamented with bracelets, are folded over the breasts, but the feet are missing. The hair is arranged in a cascade of curls, like the coiffure of later Egyptian and Grecian women. The physical habitus is distinctly negroid, that of Maupertuis' "Hottentot Venus", and probably the effect, as Osborn says, of eating large quantities of fat and marrow, in the sedentary life and confinement to caves incident to this glacial period. Other sculptures of the Crô-Magnon artists, such as the ivory "Venus of Brassempouy" and other statuettes fashioned out of the teeth of animals from Laugerie Basse and Mas d'Azil, the female figurines in soapstone and talc (one a figuration of pregnancy) from the Grimaldi caves near Mentone,3 the female statuettes of Sireuil and Trou Magrite, are described by Osborn as prototypes of

2 For a photograph of this, see Szombathy: Kor. Bl. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., 1909, xl, 87; or Osborn: "Men of the Old Stone Age." New York: 1916, 322.

8 S. Reinach: L'Anthropologie. Paris: 1898, ix 26-31, 2 pl.

Female figurine from Willendorf (Middle Aurignacian
Period).

a figure of a well-formed, vigorous man, minus head, feet and hands, apparently in act to bend a bow or hurl a spear. The latter, in sharp contrast with the female figure, is nowise corpulent, but suggests the straight flanks, narrow hips, and serviceable musculature of the athlete par excellence. Thus the passion for uncompromising realism in sculpture was already characteristic of Paleolithic man. The line engravings on schist and bone, representing horses, rein

4 G. Lalanne: L'Anthropologie. 1912, xxiii, 129149, 4 pl. Recently P. Schiefferdecker in Arch. f. Anthrop., Braunschweig, 1916, n. s., xv, 214-229, gives a different interpretation of the last figure. He believes that the athletic man is not engaged in handling weapons but in protecting a woman from the aggressions of another man.

deer, bison, bears, rhinoceros, chamois, antelope, birds and plants, are also unmistakably lifelike, and the parietal decorations in polychrome, executed by Magdalenian man (1600 B. C.), and found on the walls of the caverns of the Dordogne and the Pyrenees, have the same startling realism. These mural paintings frequently convey all the semblance of "le movement," the ambition of modern artists. The fore and hind legs of galloping animals, such as those of running stags engraved on an antler from the cavern of Lorthet (Hautes Pyrénées), are exactly as we find them in our instantaneous photographs, an action unknown to all animal painters of recent times. The most striking of the rock paintings in red and black in the Spanish cave at Cogul (Lerida) represents a sacral dance of nine women around a phallic figure. The women have pendulous breasts, narrow waists, flaring haunches, knee-high bell-shaped skirts of recent fashionable type, and mantillas over the shoulders. The women depicted on the rock-shelter wall of the Alpera cave (Sierra Chinchilla)" are steatopygous, with exposed breasts, flaring hips and bell-shaped skirts, strongly suggestive of the physical habitus and national costume of the Spanish maja or gitana. The same bell-shaped skirt is again found in the remarkable post-neolithic figurines excavated by Sir Arthur Evans in the palace at Knossos (Crete), representing the primordial Mother-Goddess and her votary. The breasts in these finely executed figures are again exposed and anatomically correct in execution. The anatomy of similar human figures on Cretan and Mycenæan seals and signets is far cruder in representation. The

5 See, S. Reinach, "Apollo." New York: 1907, 6-7.

6 H. Breuil and J. Cabré Aguila: L'Anthropologie. Paris: 1909, xx, 17.

7 H. Breuil, P. Serrano Gomez, and J. Cabré Aguila: L'Anthropologie, 1912, xxiii, 556. S. Reinach, Apollo, New York, 1907, 20.

Babylonian Mother-Goddesses, sculptured in alto rilievo (Yale Collections), are comely figurations of the nude, usually representing the act of suckling, vague in outline but of gracious charm. The Egyptian paintings are commonly executed in profile, and with sufficient clarity of outline. In the bas-relief of the temple at Sakkarah in upper Egypt (1500 B. C.), the fact that the harp-players are blind, while the singers are not, is wonderfully conveyed by a simple indication en profil (Höllander). Earlier Egyptian statuary, from the Sphinx to such figures as the "Scribe" and the basalt head in the Louvre, or the "Bronze Lady" in the Athens Museum, reveals remarkable, rugged skill in the representation of the human face and form, dwindling into mere academic elegance in the figures of the Middle and New Empires. All these figures, of whatever period, exhibit Lange's "law of frontality," i. e., they are always represented as gazing directly and rigidly forward, usually motionless, but even in walking, static, in that they rest stolidly on the soles of the feet.

Perhaps the earliest anatomical models constructed were the ancient Babylonian livers in baked clay, subdivided into squares and studded with prophetic inscriptions. Although these were used for purposes of divination (hepatoscopy), yet the nomenclature of the inscriptions and the configuration of the parts already implies considerable knowledge and study of didactic anatomy. The lobes, the gall-bladder, bileduct, hepatic duct, the porta hepatis, processus pyramidalis and processus papillaris are all distinctly outlined, as Stieda has shown, and, these specimens, viewed merely as examples of anatomical illustration in three dimensions, are far superior to the five lobed livers of mediæval tradition, as given in the "Tabula Anatomica" of Vesalius. Similar models have been found on ancient Hittite sites in Asia Minor, and Stieda describes an ancient Etruscan liver in bronze from Piacenza (third century

The figures of dancing girls, hewn out of solid rock, in the temples of India, Ceylon and the East Indies, are already splendid representations of the surface phenomena of muscular action.

The crown and flower of achievement in artistic representation of human surfaceanatomy is that of Greek sculpture in the classic period. Here, as Fletcher says, "Art was far in advance of medicine. The noble works of Phidias and his contemporaries and successors were in existence long before the time when Hippocrates began the work of rescuing medicine from the priests and made his first imperfect sketch of anatomy." In the earlier period, sculptures in high and low relief, like those on the shields of Achilles (Homer) and Hercules (Hesiod), preceded the carving of statuary in wood and stone. Of these, such figurations as those from the temples at Selinunt (Palermo) and Gartelza (Corfu) are grinning grotesques en face, suggesting the fantastic carvings of Japanese art. The earliest specimens of statuary such as the Artemis of Delos (620 B. C.) or the Hera of Samos (580 B. C.), were evolved from the crude wooden images of godhead (bava), stiff, rigid columns, without separation of limbs or eyes, which apparently derived immediately from the aniconic idols of postneolithic man. Of these, the Niké of Delos (Athens), the Apollo of Tenea (Corinth) and the twin figures (Cleobis or Biton) of Delphi (sixth century, B. C.), while still serio-comic in facial expression, have considerable anatomic merit. As with Egyptian statuary, these are upright nude figures, again illustrating the Lange "law

8 L. Stieda: "Ueber die ältesten bildlichen Darstellungen der Leber," Anat. Hefte. Wiesbaden, 1900, xv, 673-720, I pl.

9 R. Fletcher: "Anatomy and Art." Washington: 1895, 9.

of frontality," gazing directly forward, singularly alike in pose, the attitude in both being exactly that of "attention" in our "school of the soldier." In the Apollo, the pectoralis major, deltoid, biceps and rectus abdominis muscles are thrown into relief, the musculature of the forearm, thigh, and calf of the leg is well modelled, as also the bony conformation of the wrist and ankle; the flanks, hips and prepatellar region are unmistakably masculine in character, suggesting already a keen, accurate vision for the surface anatomy of the body. Some observation of the workings of facial musculature is evidenced in the faint smile. The hair is worn long, falling in wavy cascades of curls, as in the coiffure of Aurignacian. women. The musculature of the back and the gluteal, soleus and popliteal muscles, are well differentiated in the rear view. Hyrtl's dictum that grace and poise in statuary depend, in the last analysis, upon

figures in the attitude of combat, have the same anatomical merits, the muscles being thrown into sharp relief by the movement of the figures. The decorative figure paintings on vases of this period are mainly grotesques, suggesting Persian or other Asiatic affiliations.

Figure from the gable of the Aphaian Temple at Ægina. (Fifth Century, B. C.)

Greek art in the time of the Persian wars (500-499 B. C.) was that of a period of transition. The temples erected to the gods were built of marble, instead of wood or limestone, the differential characters of sex and the external appearances of the joints and veins were better featured on the vases, and linear perspective was mastered by Cimon of Cleonæ (Pliny). Sculpture, however, lagged behind, and was still in the tentative, experimental stage, feeling its way toward perfection. Moulding in bronze was more highly specialized, as the reflection of the light, absorbed by translucent marble, required closer attention to surface details. The athletic bronze Apollo of Lord Strangford (British Museum) brings out the pectoral muscles, the ribs and the masculine character of the hips and lower extremities with great clarity. The special details of bronze statuary, in which the artists of Ægina excelled, in particular the armor, weapons, and hair, were made separately and fastened to the figure. Similar details in bronze and lead were also attached to the marble figures. The finest examples of figuration in marble in this period are those

which adorned the east and west gables of the Doric temple of Aphaia at Ægina, acquired by Ludwig I of Bavaria after their discovery in 1811, and restored by Thorwaldsen. Excavations made by Adolf Furtwängler go to show that this temple was erected after the battle of Salamis (480 B. C.), in which the Æginetæ bore away the palm for bravery. Of the thirteen figures on the western gable, ten remain; of the eleven larger statues on the eastern gable, only five. These decorations consist of a central figure (Athena) with symmetrical arrangements of warriors in combat on either side. The poses of these athletic figures afford the best opportunity for the exploitation of muscular anatomy. The kneeling Hercules, on the Eastern gable, for instance, in act to discharge an arrow from a bow, reveals remarkable empirical knowledge of the effect of bending the knee- and elbow-joints upon flexure and extension of the muscles of the extremities. The prostrate wounded warrior at the corner of the eastern gable, lying on his side in a semi-prone posture, displays the same tendency. The figures are all nude, not that warriors actually exposed the unprotected frame to the enemy in this way, but because nudity was the "festal costume" at the athletic games from 700 B. C. on. When we reflect that Greek sculptors acquired their knowledge of the surface-anatomy of the body, the effect of rest and motion upon its musculature and its underlying bony framework, not from dissection, but from empirical observation of athletes in action during games and military exercises, the achievement seems all the more wonderful.

In the period between the Persian Wars and the age of Pericles, Athenian sculpture, and architecture progressed by leaps and bounds, and the Attic drama attained its height. The temples of the gods, destroyed by the barbarians, were rebuilt in a spirit of piety and sincere gratitude. The temple of Zeus at Olympia, (completed 457 B. C.) and

the Siphnian and Athenian Treasuries at Delphi were erected in this period. The metopes of the Olympian temple, particularly the friezes representing the twelve labors of Hercules and the battle between the Centaurs and the Lapithae, were executed with great power and distinct realism

NIKE of Pæonios. (420 B. C.)

as to musculature and other details. In the compositions of the great sculptors of the period-Calamis, Myron, Phidias, Pæonios, Alcammenes, Polycletus-greater artistic freedom was attained, particularly in the expression of momentary attitudes. Calamis, Myron and Polycletus worked in bronze as well as in marble. The chryselephantine statues of Athena by the Athenian Phidias (born circa 500 B. C.) were celebrated in the writings of Pausanias and others, and the sculptures of the Parthenon -the metopes in alto rilievo, the friezes in basso rilievo, and many of the figures in the round on the pediments (now famed as the Elgin Marbles) were either modelled by him or executed under his direction. Of these, the Moira, the Theseus, the Poseidon, are splendid examples of massive modelling from the half-draped and undraped nude. The character of his seated Zeus in the

temple of Olympia is sensed in the majestic head in the Carlsberg Glypothek (Copenhagen). The "Marsyas" and "Discobolus" of Myron are remarkable for bold movement, and here the "law of frontality" is totally abolished. The "Aphrodite" of Myron was admired for its grace and beauty. The winged Olympian Niké by Pæonios (454 B. C.) is a splendid semi-draped nude. Polycletus, the Peloponnesian rival of Phidias, whose "Amazon" (Vatican) and other statues introduced the new motif of resting the weight of the body on one foot, was only excelled by Phidias in grandeur and excelled him in finish. His "Doryophorus" (Naples Museum) was called the "Canon," on account of its just rendering of human proportions. The wonderful power of first hand observation of anatomical structure possessed by the sculptors of the age of Polycletus is evinced in a torso from the metopes of the friezes of the Argive Heraeum at Argos. This figure represents a nude warrior youth in violent contest with an Amazon. In the groin is a curious hernia-like protrusion, which, as Waldstein proved by dissection and by throwing a well-developed athlete into the same posture, is nothing less than the forcibly contracted pectineus muscle, not visible in repose, being hidden at the bottom of Scarpa's triangle. This muscle, which was highly developed in Greek athletes, has escaped the attention of modern sculptors, as also a well defined line running from the groin to the ilium, which is found in all antique statues of the athletic prizemen.10

The pupils of Phidias, the gem engravers and the painters (Polygnotus) represent the last stages of the transition from the splendid dignity and repose (ethos) of the older masters, the static expression of physical power, to the newer pathos, which conveyed the impression of pain by muscular contraction of the body and face. The

10 Sir Charles Waldstein: "The Argive Heræum." Boston: 1902, 186, pl. 30 and 34.