out in the open air, because it was "a time of much rain." The knowledge of this mode of dividing the year illustrates John x. 22, 23. and accounts for our Lord's walking in the portico of the temple at the feast of dedication, which was celebrated towards the close of the same month. Further, the Jews divided their solar year into four parts, called by them Tekuphat (that is, revolutions of time), or quarters, which they distinguished by the names of the months with which they commenced: thus, the vernal equinox is termed Tekuphat Nisan; the autumnal equinox, Tekuphat Tisri; the winter solstice, Tekuphat Tebeth; and the summer solstice, Tekuphat Thammuz. Some critics have conjectured that our Lord refers to the intervening space of four months, from the conclusion of seed-time to the commencement of the harvest, in John iv. 35. The following CALENDAR will present to the reader a view of the entire JEWISH YEAR. It is abridged from Father Lamy's Apparatus Biblicus, with additions from the Calendar printed by Calmet, at the end of his Dictionary of the Bible. In it are inserted the festivals and fasts celebrated by the Jews; including not only those enacted by the law of Moses, and which are described in a subsequent part of this work, but likewise those which were not established until after the destruction of the temple, and those which are observed by the Jews to the present time. The lessons also are introduced which they were accustomed to read in the synagogues.-Those days, on which no festival or fast was celebrated, are designedly omitted. 1. TISRI, FORMERLY CALLED ETHANIM. The FIRST month of the civil year, the SEVENTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has thirty days, and corresponds with part of our September and October. 1 Rosch Haschana, the beginning of the civil year. The feast of trumpets commanded in Leviticus. (Lev. xxiii. 24, 25. Num. xxix. 1. Jer. h. 1.) 3. The fast of Gedaliah; because Gedaliah, the son of Ahikam, and ali the Jews that were with him, were slain at Mizpah. (2 Kings xxv. 25.) This is the fast that Zechariah calls the fast of the seventh month. (Zech. mi 19.) 5. A fast. Twenty Israelites were killed: Rabbi Akiba, the son of Joseph, was loaded with irons, and died in prison. A fast, appointed on account of the golden calf. (Exod. xxxii. 6, 7, 8.) The lessons for this day were from Deut. xxvi. 1. to Deut. xxix. and the Lxth chapter of Isaiah. 10. The fast of expiation. (Lev. xxiii. 27.) 14. The lessons for this day were from Deut. xxix. 10. to Deut. xxxi. 1. when the year had most Sabbaths; and when fewest, the book was finished en this day. And from Isa. Ixi. L to Isa. Ixiii. 10. 15. The feast of tabernacles. (Lev. xxiii. 34, 35.) It lasted seven days, exclusive of the octave or eighth day. 21. Hosanna Rabba, the seventh day of the feast of tabernacles; or the feast of branches. The lessons for this day were from Gen. i. 1. to Gen. vi. 9. and from Isa. xli. 5. to Isa. xliii. 11. 22 The octave of the feast of tabernacles. (Lev. xxiii. 36.) 2. The solemnity of the law, in memory of the covenant and death of Moses. On this day Solomon's dedication was finished. (1 Kings viii. 65.) 28. The lessons were from Gen. vi. 9. to Gen. xii. 1. and from Isa. liv. 1. to Isa. lv. 5. 30. On this day the lessons were from Gen. xii. 1. to Gen. xviii. 1. and from Isa. xl. 27. to Isa. xli. 17. (This day is the fast held in commemoration of the murder of Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar made governor of Judæa, after he had destroyed Jerusalem, according to Dr. Prideaux. 2 2. MARCHESVAN The SECOND month of the civil year, the EIGHTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has only twenty-nine days, and carresponds with part of our October and November. 1. The new moon. (Calmet observes, in the Jewish Calendar, at the end of his Dictionary of the Bible, that the Jews always made two new moons for every month; the first of which was the last day of the preceding month; and the first day of the month was the second new moon of that month.) 3. The lessons for this day were from Gen. xviii. 1. to Gen. xxiii. 1. and from 2 Sam. iv. 1. to 2 Sam. iv. 38. 6. A fast, appointed on account of Zedekiah's having his eyes put out by the command of Nebuchadnezzar, after he had seen his children slain before his face. (2 Kings xxv. 7. Jer. lii. 10.) The lessons for this day were from Gen. xxii. 1. to Gen. xxv. 19. and from 1 Sam. i. 1. to 1 Sam. i. 32. 15. The lessons for this day were from Gen. xxv. 19. to Gen. xxviii. 10. and from Mal. i. 1. to Mal. ii. 8. 19. Fast to expiate the crimes committed on account of the feast of tabernacles. 23. A fast in memory of the stones of the altar which the Gentiles faned, 1 Mac. iv. 46. pro The lessons for this day were from Gen. xxviii. 10. to Gen. xxxii. 3. and from Hos. xi. 7. to Hos. xiv. 3. A fast in memory of some places which the Cuthans seized, and were recovered by the Israelites after the captivity. Lamy's Apparatus Biblicus, vol. i. p. 155. et seq. * Prideaux's Connection, part i. book i. under the year 588. In this month the Jews prayed for the rain, which they call Jore, or the autumnal rain, which was very seasonable for their seed. Genebrard pretends that they did not ask for this rain til! the next month. Perhaps there might be no stated time for asking for it; that might depend upon their want of it. The Jews say it was in October; and it was called in general the autumnal rain, which season lasted three months. 3. CHISLEU, OR CASLEU. The THIRD month of the civil year, the NINTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has thirty days, and corresponds with part of our November and December. 1. The new moon. 2. Prayers for rain. 3. A feast in memory of the idols which the Asmonæans threw out of the temple. 6. The lessons for this day were from Gen. xxxii. 3. to Gen. xxxvii. 1. and the whole book of Obadiah, or from Hos. xii. 12. to the end of the book. Jeremiah, which Baruch had written. (Jer. xxxvi. 23.) This fast Dr. Pri7. A fast, instituted because king Jehoiakim burned the prophecy of deaux places on the 29th of this month. But Calmet places it on the sixth of this month, and makes the seventh of this month a festival, in memory of the death of Herod the Great, the son of Antipater. Scaliger will have it that it was instituted on account of Zedekiah's having his eyes put out, after his children had been slain in his sight. 10. The lessons for this day were from Gen. xxxvii. 1. to Gen. xli. 1. and from Amos ii. 6. to Amos iii. 9. 17. The lessons for this day were from Gen. xli. I. to Gen. xliv. 18. and from 1 Sam. iii. 15. to the end of the chapter. 25. The dedication of the temple. This feast lasted eight days. The lessons for this day were from Gen. xliv. 18. to Gen. xlvii. 27. and from Ezek. xxxvii. 15. to the end of the chapter. 9. A fast, the reason of which is not mentioned by the Rabbins. 10. A fast on account of the siege which the king of Babylon laid to Jerusalem. (2 Kings xxv.) 11. The lessons were the first five chapters of Exodus, and with them from Isa. xxvii. 6. to Isa. xxvii. 14. or else from Jer. i. 1. to Jer. ii. 4. from Ezek. xxviii. 25. to Ezek. xxx. 1. 17. The lessons for this day were from Exod. vi. 1. to Exod. x. 1. and 25. The lessons for this day were from Exod. x. 1. to Exod xiii. 17. and from Jer. xlvi. 13. to the end of the chapter. 28. A fast in memory of Rabbi Simeon's having driven the Sadducees out of the Sanhedrin, where they had the upper hand in the time of Alexander Jannæus; and his having introduced the Pharisees in their room. 5. SEBAT, SHEVET, OR SHEBAT. The FIFTH month of the civil year, the ELEVENTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has thirty days, and corresponds with part of our January and February, of the trees which they planted, whose fruit was not to be eaten till after 1. The new moon. In this month the Jews began to reckon the years they had been planted three years. Calmet fixes the beginning of this year of trees to the 15th day of this month. 2. A rejoicing for the death of Alexander Jannæus. 3. Now is read from Exod. xiii. 17. to Exod. xviii. 1. and from Judg. iv. 4. to Judg. vi. 1. A fast in memory of the death of the elders who succeeded Joshua, (Judg. ii. 10.) 8. A fast, because on this day died the just men who lived in the days of Joshua. (Judg. ii. 10.) 10. The lessons were from Exod. xviii. 1. to Exod. xxi. 1. and the whole sixth chapter of Isaiah. 17. The lessons for this day were from Exod. xxi. 1. to Exod. xxv. 1. and Jer. xxxiv. from ver. 8. to the end of the chapter. 23. A fast in memory of the insurrection of the other tribes against that of Benjamin, on account of the death of the Levite's wife. (Judg. xx.) 26. Now is read, from Exod. xxv. 1. to Exod. xxvii. 20. and from 1 Sam, v. 12. to 1 Sam. vi. 14. 29. Now is read, from Exod. xxvii. 20. to Exod. xxx. 11. and Ezek. xliii. from the 10th verse to the end of the chapter. 6. ADAR. The SIXTH month of the civil year, the TWELFTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has only twenty-nine days, and corresponds with part of our February and March. 1. The new moon. Genebrard places the first-fruits on this day. 3. The lessons for this day were from Exod. xxx. 11. to Exod. xxxv. 1. and from 1 Sam. xviii. 1. to 1 Sam. xviii. 39. 7. A fast on account of the death of Moses, the lawgiver of the Jews. (Deut. xxxiv. 5, 6.) * Connection, part i. book i. under the year 685. 9. A fast. The schools of Schammai and Hillel began to be divided on this day. 12. The lessons are from Exod. xxxv. 1. to Exod. xxxviii. 21. and from 1 Sam. xvii. 13. to 1 Sam. xvii. 26. (This day is also a feast in memory of the death of Hollianus and Pipus, two proselytes and brothers, who chose rather to die than violate the law.) 13. A festival on account of the death of Nicanor. (2 Macc. xv. 37.) Genebrard places the fast of Esther (Esth. iv. 16.) on this day. 14. Purim the first, or the Little Feast of Lots. 15. Purim the second, or the Great Feast of Lots. (Esth. ix. 18.) An ac. count of these festivals is given in a subsequent part of this volume. The dedication of the temple of Zorobabel (Ezra vi. 16.) was made in this month, but the day is not known. 18. Now is read from Exod. xxxviii. 21. to the end of the book; and from 1 Sam. vii. 50. to 1 Sam. viii. 21. 20. A fast in memory of the rain obtained of God, by one Onias Hammagel, in a time of great dearth. 25. The lessons were the first five chapters of Leviticus, and from Isa. xliii. 21. to Isa. xliv. 24. 28. A feast. The Grecian edict, which forbade the Jews the use of circumcision, recalled. The intercalary month was inserted here, when the year was to consist of thirteen lunar months; and the month so added was called Ve-Adar, that | is, the second Adar. 7. ABIB, OR NISAN. The SEVENTH month of the civil year, the FIRST month of the ecclesiastical year; it has thirty days, and corresponds with part of our March and April. 1. The new moon. A fast on account of the death of the children of Aaron. (Lev. x. 1.) 3. The lessons were from Lev. vi. 1. to Lev. ix. 1. and from Jer. vii. 21. to Jer. viii. 4. 10. A fast on account of the death of Miriam. (Num. xx. 1.) On this day every one provided himself with a lamb against the 14th. 12. The lessons were from Lev. ix. 1. to Lev. xii. 1. and from 2 Sam, vi. 1. to 2 Sam. vii. 17. 14. The passover. The Jews now burn all the leavened bread they have in their houses. 15. The feast of unleavened bread. 16. The morrow after the feast of the passover. On this second day the Jews offered up to God the Omer, that is, the sheaf of the new barley harvest, which was cut and carried into the temple with much ceremony. The fifty days of pentecost were reckoned from this day. 19. The lessons were from Lev. xii. 1. to Lev. xiv. 1. and from 2 Sam. iv. 42. to 2 Sam. v. 20. 21. The last day of the feast of unleavened bread. 26. A fast for the death of Joshua. (Josh. xxiv. 29.) 27. The lessons were from Lev. xiv. 1. to Lev. xvi. 1. and 2 Sam. vii. 3. to the end of the chapter. 29. Genebrard observes, that the Jews in this month prayed for the spring rain, or the latter rain, which was seasonable for their harvest. (Deut. xi. 14. Zech. x. 1.) This is that rain which the Hebrews call Malkosh, that is, the rain which prepares for the harvest, and makes the grain swell. 8. JYAR, OR ZIF. The EIGHTH month of the civil year, the SECOND month of the ecclesiastical year; it has only twenty-nine days, and corresponds with part of our April and May. 1. The new moon. 3. The lessons were from Lev. xvi. 1. to Lev. xix. 1. and 17 verses of Ezek. xxii. 10. A fast for the death of Eli, and the taking of the ark. (1 Sam. iv. 18.) 11. The lessons were from Lev. xix. 1. to Lev. xx. 1. and from Amos ix. 7. to the end; or else from Ezek. xx. 2. to Ezek. xxi. 21. 14. The second passover (Num. ix. 10, 11.) in favour of those who could not, or were not suffered to celebrate the passover the last month. 19. The lessons were from Lev. xxi. 1. to Lev. xxv. 1. and from Ezek. iv. 15. to the end of the chapter. 23. A feast. Simon takes Gaza, according to Scaliger. 26. The lessons were from Lev. xxv. 1. to Lev. xxvi. 3. and from Jer. xxxii. 6. to Jer. xxxii. 28. 28. A fast for the death of Samuel, who was lamented by all the people. (1 Sam. xxv. 1.) 17. A feast for the taking of Cæsarea by the Asmonæans. 19. The lessons were from Num. iv. 21. to Num. viii. 1. and from Judg. ii. 2. to the end of the chapter. 23. A fast, because Jeroboam forbad the ten tribes, which obeyed him, to carry up their first-fruits to Jerusalem. (1 Kings xii. 27.) 25. A fast, on account of the murder of the rabbins, Simon the son of Gamaliel, Ishmael the son of Elisha, and Ananias the Sagan, that is, the high-priest's vicar. 26. The lessons were from Num. viii. to Num. xiii. 1. and from Zech. ii. 10. to Zech. iv. 8. 27. A fast, because Rabbi Hanina, the son of Tardion, was burnt, and with him the book of the law. Selden. 1. iii. c. 13. de Syned. ex Megill. Taanith. Calmet's Calend. 10. THAMMUZ, OR TAMMUZ. The TENTH month of the civil year, the FOURTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has only twenty-nine days, and corresponds with part of our June and July. 1. The new moon. 3. The lessons were from Num. xiii. 1. to Num. xvi. 1. and the 2d chapter of Joshua. 10. The lessons were from Num. xvi. 1. to Num. xix. i. and from 1 Sam. xi. 14. to 1 Sam. xii. 23. 14. A feast for the abolition of a pernicious book of the Sadducees against the oral law and tradition. 17. The fast of the fourth month, because the tables of the law were broken, the perpetual sacrifice ceased, Epistemon burned the law, and set up an idol in the temple. (Exod. xxxii. 19.) 19. The lessons were from Num. xix. 1. to Num. xxii. 2. and the 11th chapter of Judges to the 34th verse. 26. The lessons were from Nuin. xxii. 2. to Num. xxv. 10. and from Mic. v. 7. to Mic. vi. 9. 29. The lessons were from Num. XXXV. 10. to Num. xx. 2. and from 1 Sam. xviii. 46 to the end of the chapter. 11. AB. The ELEVENTH month of the civil year, the FIFTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has thirty days, and corresponds with part of our July and August. 1. The new moon. A fast on account of the death of Aaron the highpriest. (Num. xxxiii. 38.) 3. The lessons were from Num. xxx. 2. to Num. xxxiii. 1. and from Jer. i. 1. to Jer. ii. 4. 9. The fast of the fifth month, because the temple was first burnt by the Chaldees, and afterwards by the Romans, on this day; and because God on this day declared in the time of Moses that none of those who came out of Egypt should enter into the land of promise. (Num. xiv. 29. 31.) 12. The book of Numbers is now finished; and from Jer. ii. 4. to Jer. ii. 29. is also read. 18. A fast, because in the time of Ahaz the evening lamp went out. Genebrand calls this lamp the Western Lamp. 20. Deuteronomy is begun, and read from i. 1. to iii. 23. and the 1st chapter of Isaiah to verse 28. 21. Selden asserts that this was the day that all the wood which was wanted in the temple was brought into it; but others think that this was done in the next month. 24. A feast for the Maccabees having abolished that law of the Sadducees whereby sons and daughters inherited alike. 28. The lessons were from Deut. iii. 23. to Deut. vii. 12. and Isa. xl. to verse 27. 12. ELUL. The TWELFTH month of the civil year, the SIXTH month of the ecclesiastical year; it has but twenty-nine days, and corresponds with part of our August and September. 1. The new moon. 3. The lessons were from Deut. vii. 12. to Deut. xi. 26. and from Isa. xlix. 14. to Isa. li. 4. 7. The dedication of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah. 12. The lessons were from Deut. xi. 27. to Deut. xvi. 18. and from Isa. liv. 11. to Isa. lv. 4. 17. A fast, because of the death of the spies who brought up the evil report of the land of promise. (Num. xiv. 36, 37.) 20. The lessons were from Deut. xvi. 18. to Deut. xxi. 10. and from Isa. li. 12. to Isa. lii. 18. 21. The festival of wood offering (rylophoria). 22. A fast in memory of the punishment of the wicked and incorrigible Israelites. 28. The lessons were from Deut. xxi. 10. to Deut. xxvi. 1. and Isa. liv. to verse 11. 29. This is the last day of the month, on which the Jews reckoned up the beasts that had been born, the tenth of which belonged to God. They chose this day on which to do it, because the first day of the month Tisri was a festival, and therefore they could not tithe a flock on that day. VI. In common with other nations, the Jews reckoned any part of a period of time for the whole, as in Exod. xvi. 35. An attention to this circumstance will explain several apparent contradictions in the Sacred Writings: thus, a part of the day is used for the whole, and part of the year for an entire year. In Gen. xvii. 12. circumsion is enjoined to be performed when a child is eight days old, but in Lev. xii. 3. on the eighth day; accordingly, when Jesus Christ is said to have been circumcised when eight days were accomplished (Luke ii. the last, which was the constant usage, explains the former 21.) and John the Baptist on the eighth day (Luke i. 59.), passage. Abenezra, an eminent Jewish commentator (on Lev. xii. 3.), says, that if an infant were born in the last hour of the day, such hour was counted for one whole day. This observation critically reconciles the account of our Lord's resurrection in Matt. xxvii. 63. and Mark viii. 31., "three days after," with that of his resurrection "on the third day," according to Matt. xvi. 21. Luke ix. 22., and according to fact; for, as our Lord was crucified on Good Friday, about the sixth hour, or noon, the remainder of that day to 2 See Prideaux's Con. p. i. b. 1, under the year 588. sunset, according to the Jewish computation, was reckoned as one day. Saturday, it is universally admitted, formed the second day; and as the third day began on Saturday at sunset, and our Saviour rose about sunrise on the following morning, that part of a day is justly reckoned for the third day; so that the interval was "three days and three nights," or three calendar days current, not exceeding 42 hours, and, consequently, not two entire days. This observation also illustrates 2 Chron. x. 5. 12.: and the same mode of computing time obtains in the East, to this day.2 In like manner, in some parts of the East, the year ending on a certain day, any portion of the foregoing year is taken for a whole year; so that, supposing a child to be born in the last week of our December, it would be reckoned one year old on the first day of January, because born in the old year. If this mode of computation obtained among the Hebrews, the principle of it easily accounts for those anachronisms of single years, or parts of years taken for whole ones, which occur in sacred writ: it obviates the difficulties which concern the half years of several princes of Judah and Israel, in which the latter half of the deceased king's last year has hitherto been supposed to be added to the former half of his successor's first year. "We are told" (1 Sam. xiii. 1. marg. reading), "a son of one year was Saul in his kingdom: and two years he reigned over Israel," that is, say he was crowned in June: he was consequently one year old on the first of January following, though he had only reigned six months, the son of a year. But, after this so following first of January he was in the second year of his reign; though, according to our computation, the first year of his reign wanted some months of being completed; in this, his second year, he chose three thousand military, &c. guards. "The phrase (ar durns) used to denote the age of the infants slaughtered at Bethlehem (Matt. ii. 16.) from two years old and under,' is a difficulty that has been deeply felt by the learned. Some infants two weeks old, some two months, others two years, equally slain! Surely those born so long before could not possibly be included in the order, whose purpose was to destroy a child, certainly born within a few months. This is regulated at once by the idea that they were all of nearly equal age, being recently born; some not long before the close of the old year, others a little time since the beginning of the new year. Now, those born before the close of the old year, though only a few months or weeks, 1 Dr. Hales, to whom we are partly indebted for the above remark, has cited several passages from profane authors, who have used a similar phraseology. (Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. pp. 121, 122.) Similar illustraLions from rabbinical writers are collected by Bp. Beveridge (on the 39 Articles, in Art. IV. Works, vol. ix. p. 159. note f), by Dr. Lightfoot (Hor. Heb. in Matt. xii. 40.), and by Reland. (Antiq. Heb. lib. iv. c. I.) would be reckoned not merely one year old, but also in their second year, as the expression implies; and those born since the beginning of the year, would be well described by the phrase and under,' that is, under one year old ;-some, two years old, though not born a complete twelvemonth (perhaps, in fact, barely six months); others, under one year old, yet born three, four, or five months, and, therefore, a trifle younger than those before described according to the time which Herod had diligently inquired of the wise men, IN their second year and UNDER."3 VII. Besides the computation of years, the Hebrews first and the Jews afterwards, were accustomed to reckon their time from some REMARKABLE ERAS or epochas. Thus, 1. From Gen. vii. 11. and viii. 13., it appears that they reckoned from the lives of the patriarchs or other illustrious persons: 2. From their departure out of Egypt, and the first institution of their polity (Exod. xix. 1. xl. 17. Num. i. 1. ix. 1. xxxiii. 38. 1'Kings vi. 1.): 3. Afterwards, from the building of the temple (1 Kings ix. 10. 2 Chron. viii. 1.), and from the reigns of the kings of Judah and Israel: 4. Then from the commencement of the Babylonian captivity (Ezek. i. 1. xxxiii. 21. xl. 1.); and, perhaps, also from their return from captivity, and the dedication of the second temple. In process of time they adopted, 5. The Era of the Seleucida, which in the books of Maccabees is called the Era of the Greeks, and the Alexandrian Era: it began from the year when Seleucus Nicanor attained the sovereign power, that is, about 312 years before the birth of Jesus Christ. This æra the Jews continued to employ for upwards of thirteen hundred years.4 6. They were further accustomed to reckon their years from the years when their princes began to reign. Thus, in 1 Kings xv. 1. Isa. xxxvi. 1. and Jer. i. 2, 3., we have traces of their anciently computing according to the years of their kings; and in later times (1 Macc. xiii. 42. xiv. 27), according to the years of the Asmonæan princes. Of this mode of computation we have vestiges in Matt. ii. 1. Luke i. 5. and iii. 1. Lastly, ever since the compilation of the Talmud, the Jews have reckoned their years from the creation of the world." Calmet's Dictionary, 4to. edit. vol. ii. Supplementary Addenda. There are in fact two dates assigned to the æra of the Seleucidæ in the two books of Maccabees. As Seleucus did not obtain permanent possession of the city of Babylon (which had been retaken from him by Demetrius, surnamed Poliorcetes, or the vanquisher of cities) until the spring of the year 311 before Christ, the Babylonians fixed the commencement of this era in the latter year. "The first book of Maccabees computes the years from April, B. c. 311, as Michaelis has shown in his note on 1 Macc. x 21.; while the second book dates from October, B. c. 312.; consequently, there is often the difference of a year in the chronology of these books. (Com. pare 2 Macc. xi. 21. with Macc. vi. 16., and 2 Macc. xiii. I. with 1 Macc. vi. 20.) This æra continued in general use among the orientals, with the exception of the Mohammedans, who employed it together with their own æra from the flight of Mohammed, B. c. 622. The Jews had no other epoch until A. D. 1040; when, being expelled from Asia by the caliphs, and scattered about in Spain, England, Germany, Poland, and other western coun tries, they began to date from the creation, though still without entirely dropping the era of the Seleucida. The orientals denominate this epoch the ara of the two-horned; by which it is generally supposed they mean Alexander the Great. But perhaps the name had primary reference to Seleucus; for on some coins he is represented with two horns. See Froelich, Annales Syriæ, Tab. ii. Seleuc. Nic. 1. et Tab. iii. 29."-(Jahn's His. tory of the Hebrew Commonwealth, vol. i. pp. 249, 250.) Shortly before the philanthropic Mr. Howard arrived at Constantinople, the grand chamberlain of the city (whose province it was to supply the inhabitants with bread) had been beheaded in a summary way, in the public street, for having furnished, or permitted to be furnished, loaves short of weight; and his body was exposed for a day and a half, with three light baves beside it to denote his crime. "When Mr. Howard was told that the body had lain there for three days, he expressed his surprise that it had not bred a contagion. He learnt, however, that in point of fact it had not been left so long, as they were not entire days: for, it being the evening when the head was struck off, it remained the whole of the second, and was removed early in the succeeding morning, which was accounted the. third; thus" (as Mr. II.'s biographer very properly remarks) "the manner of computation, in use at the time of our Saviour's crucifixion and burial, still subsists among the eastern nations." (Brown's Life of John Howard, Esq. pp. 437, 438. 8vo. edit.) Reland, Antiq. Hebr. pp. 203-215. Schulzii Compendium Archæolo. giæ Hebraicæ, lib. i. c. 11. pp. 94-107. Lamy's Apparatus Biblicus, book ch. 5. vol. i. pp. 138-154. Calmet's Dictionary, articles Day, Week, Month, Year. Jahn, et Ackermann, Archæologia Biblica, §§ 101-103. Jen. ning's Jewish Antiquities, book iii. ch. 1. See also Waehner's Antiquitates Hebræorum, part ii. p. 5. et seq. Pritii Introd. in Nov. Test. pp. 566-575.; Pareau, Antiquitas Hebraica, pp. 310-318, CHAPTER V. ON THE TRIBUTE AND TAXES MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. I. Annual Payments made by the Jews for the support of their Sacred Worship.-II. Tributes paid to their own Sovereigns.III. Tributes and Customs paid by them to foreign Powers.-Notice of the Money-changers.-IV. Account of the Publicans or Tax-gatherers. As no government can be supported without great charge, it is but just that every one who enjoys his share of protection from it, should contribute towards it maintenance and support. 1. On the first departure of the Israelites from Egypt, before any regulation was made, the people contributed, on any extraordinary occasion, according to their ability, as in the case of the voluntary donations for the tabernacle. (Exod. xxv. 2. xxxv. 5.) After the tabernacle was erected, a payment of half a shekel was made by every male of twenty years of age and upwards (Exod. xxx. 13, 14.), when the census, or sum of the children of Israel, was taken: and on the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, an annual payment of the third part of a shekel was made, for the maintenance of the temple-worship and service. (Neh. x. 32.) Subsequently, the enactment of Moses was deemed to be of perpetual obligation, and in the time of our Saviour two drachmæ, or half a shekel, were paid by every Jew, whether native or residing in foreign countries: besides which, every one, who was so disposed, made voluntary offerings, according to his ability. (Mark xii. 41-44.)3 Hence vast quantities of gold were annually brought to Jerusalem into the temple, where there was an apartment called the Treasury (Taxanov), specially appropriated to their reception. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Vespasian, by an edict, commanded that the half shekel should in future be brought by the Jews, wherever they were, into the capitol. In addition to the preceding payments for the support of their sacred worship, we may notice the first-fruits and tenths, of which an account is found in Part III. chap. iv. infra. II. Several of the Canaanitish_tribes were tributary to the Israelites even from the time of Joshua (Josh. xvi. 10. xvii. 13. Judg. i. 28. 33.) whence they could not but derive considerable wealth. The Moabites and Syrians were tributary to David (2 Sam. viii. 2. 6.): and Solomon at the beginning of his reign compelled the Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites, who were left in the country, to pay him tribute, and to perform the drudgery of the public works which he had undertaken, and from which the children of Israel were exempted. (1 Kings ix. 21, 22. 33. 2 Chron. viii. 9.) But towards the end of his reign he imposed a tribute on them also (1 Kings v. 13, 14. ix. 15. xi. 27.), which alienated their minds, and sowed the seeds of that discontent, which afterwards ripened into open revolt by the rebellion of Jeroboam the son of Nebat. III. Afterwards, however, the Israelites, being subdued by other nations, were themselves compelled to pay tribute to their conquerors. Thus Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, imposed a tribute of one hundred talents of silver and a talent of gold. (2 Kings xxiii. 33. 35.) After their return from captivity, the Jews paid tribute to the Persians, under whose government they were (Ezra iv. 13.), then to the Greeks, from which, however, they were exonerated, when under the Maccabees they had regained their liberty. In later times, when they were conquered by the Roman arms under Pompey, they were again subjected to the payment of tribute, even though their princes enjoyed the honours and dignities of royalty, as was the case with Herod the Great 1 The materials of this chapter, where other authorities are not cited, The poor (Luke ii. 1-5.): and afterwards, when Judæa was reduced into a Roman province, on the dethronement and banishment of his son Archelaus, the Romans imposed on the Jews not only the annual capitation tax of a denarius (pepes), but also a tax on goods imported or exported (r), and various other taxes and burthens. To this capitation tax the evange lists allude in Matt. xxii. 17. and Mark xii. 14. where it is termed opioμa unvoco (numisma censsus), or the tribute money; and as this tax appears from Matt. xxii. 20, 21. to have been paid in Roman coin, the Jews paid it with great reluctance; and raised various insurrections on account of it. Among these malcontents, Judas, surnamed the Gaulonite or Galilæan, distinguished himself: he pretended that it was not lawful to pay tribute to a foreigner; that it was the badge of actual servitude, and that they were not allowed to own any for their master who did not worship the Lord. These sentiments animated the Pharisees, who came to Christ with the insidious design of ensnaring him by the question, whether it was lawful to pay tribute to Cæsar or not? Which question he answered with equal wisdom and regard for the Roman government. (Matt. xxii. 17-21.) With these sentiments the Jews continued to be animated long after the ascension of Jesus Christ; and it should seem that some of the first Hebrew Christians had imbibed their principles. In opposition to which, the apostle Paul and Peter in their inimitable epistles strenuously recommend and inculcate on all sincere believers in Jesus Christ, the duties of submission and obedience to princes, and a conscientious discharge of their duty, in paying tribute. (Rom. xiii. 7. 1 Pet. ii. 13.) To supply the Jews who came to Jerusalem from all parts of the Roman empire to pay the half-shekel with coins current there, the money-changers (x) stationed themselves at tables, in the courts of the temple, and chiefly, it should seem, in the court of the Gentiles, for which they exacted a small fee, kolbon (xoves). It was the tables on which these men trafficked for this unholy gain, which were overturned by Jesus Christ. (Matt. xxi. 12.)7 The money-changers (called para in Matt. xxi. 12. and as in John ii. 14.) were also those who made a profit by exchanging money. They supplied the Jews, who came from distant parts of Judæa and other parts of the Roman empire, with money, to be received back at their respective homes, or which, perhaps, they had paid before they commenced their journey. It is likewise probable that they exchanged foreign coins for such as were current at Jerusalem. IV. Among the Romans, the censors let their taxes by public auction; and those who farmed them were called Publicani, or PUBLICANS. These farmers-general were usually Roman knights, who had under them inferior collectors: Josephus has made mention of several Jews who were Roman knights, whence Dr. Lardner thinks it probable that they had merited the equestrian rank by their good services in collecting some part of the revenue. The coltectors of these tributes were known by the general name of Texas, that is, tax-gatherers, in our authorized version rendered PUBLICANS. Some of them appear to have been receivers-general for a large district, as Zaccheus, who is styled a chief publican (Apins). Matthew, who is termed simply a publican (T), was one who sat at the receipt of custom where the duty was paid on imports and exports. (Matt. ix. 9. Luke v. 29. Mark ii. 14.) These officers, at are derived from Schulz's Archæologia Hebraica, c. 13. de vectigalibus et tributis, and Pareau's Antiquitas Hebraica, part iii. sect. ii. c. 5. de tributis et vectigalibus. 2 Josephus, de Bell. Jud. lib. vii. c. 6. § 6. Philonis Judæi Opera, tom. ii. p. 224. Grotius, Hammond, and Whitby, on Matt. xxi. 12. Dr. Lightfoot's A singular law was in force in the time of Jesus Christ, prohibit-Works, vol. ii. p. 225. În Ceylon, "Moormen, whose business it is to give ing one mite (ATV) from being cast into the treasury. cash for notes, may be seen sitting in public places, with heaps of coin widow, therefore, who in Mark xii. 42. is said to have cast in two mites, before them. On observing a person with a note, or in want of their sergave the smallest sum permitted by the law. Schoetgen, Horæ Hebraica, vices, they earnestly solicit his attention." Callaway's Oriental Observavol. i. p. 250. Townsend's Harmony of the New Testament, vol. i. p. 114. tions, p. 68. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 7. § 2 Cicero, Orat. pro Flacco, c. 28. Cicero, in Verrem, lib. iii. c. 72. Orat. pro Planco, c. 9. De Petitione Josephus, de Bell. Jud. lib. vii. c. 6. § 6. Consulatus, c. 1. Tacit. Annal. lib. iv. c. 6. Adam's Roman Antiquities, pp. 25. 60. De Bell. Jud. lib. ii. c. 14. § 9. 1 Macc. x. 29, 30. xi. 35, 36. xv. 5. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xiii. c. 2. 3. c. 4. § 9. c. 6. § 6. least the inferior ones (like the rahdars, or toll-gatherers, in | modern Persia,1 and the mirigees, or collectors of customs, in Asia Minor,2 were generally rapacious, extorting more than the legal tribute; whence they were reckoned infamous among the Greeks, and various passages in the Gospels show how odious they were to the Jews (Mark ii. 15, 16. Luke iii. 13.), insomuch that the Pharisees would hold no communication whatever with them, and imputed it to our Saviour as a crime that he sat at meat with publicans. (Matt. ix. 10, 11. xi. 19. xxi. 31, 32.) The payment of taxes to the Romans was accounted by the Jews an intolerable grievance: hence those who assisted in collecting them were detested as plunderers in the cause of the Romans, as betrayers of the liberties of their country, and as abettors of those who had enslaved it; this circumstance will account for the contempt and hatred so often expressed by the Jews in the evangelical histories against the collectors of the taxes or tribute.3 The parable of the Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 10-13.) will derive considerable illustration from these circumstances. Our Saviour, in bringing these two characters together, appears to have chosen them as making the strongest contrast between what, in the public estimation, were the extremes of excellence and villany. The Pharisees, it is well known, were the most powerful sect among the Jews, and made great pretences to piety: and when the account of the Persian rahdars, given in the preceding page, is recollected, it will account for the Pharisee, in addressing God, having made extortioners, and the unjust, almost synonymous terms with publicans; because, from his peculiar office, the rahdar is almost an extortioner by profession. CHAPTER VI. ON THE GENEALOGICAL TABLES OF THE HEBREWS, AND PUBLIC MEMORIALS OF EVENTS. and Babylon, or in any other place whithersoever their priests I. THE Hebrews were very careful in preserving their GENEALOGIES, or the history of the successions of families. Vestiges of these histories of families appear in Gen. v. and x. In proportion as the Hebrews increased in numbers during their residence in Egypt, it became an object of growing importance carefully to preserve the genealogical tables of the whole nation, in order that each tribe might be kept perfectly distinct. The charge of these genealogies was, most probably, confided, in the first instance, to the shoterim, or scribes, of whom a short account is given in p. 42. supra, and afterwards to the Levites; at least in the time of the kings, From similar public registers Mathew and Luke derived we find that the scribes were generally taken from the tribe the genealogies of our Saviour; the former of which, from of Levi. (1 Chron. xxiii. 4. 2 Chron. xix. 8-11. xxxiv. 13.) Abraham to Jesus Christ, embraces a period of nearly two "This was a very rational procedure, as the Levites devoted thousand years, while the genealogy of Luke, from Adam to themselves particularly to study; and, among husbandmen Christ, comprises a period of about four thousand years. It and unlearned people, few were likely to be so expert in is well known that the Jews carried their fondness for writing, as to be intrusted with keeping registers so impor-genealogies to great excess, and prided themselves on tracing tant. In later times the genealogical tables were kept in the their pedigrees up to Abraham. Jerome says that they were temple." as well acquainted with genealogies from Adam to ZerubWhatever injury the public genealogies might have sus-babel as they were with their own names. Against such tained in consequence of the Babylonish captivity, it was re- unprofitable genealogies Paul cautions Timothy (1 Tim. i. 4.) paired on the restoration of the Jewish polity, as far at least and Titus. (iii. 9.) Since the total dispersion of the Jews in as was practicable. (Ezra ii. viii. 1-14. Neh. vii. xii.) the reign of Adrian, the Jews have utterly lost their ancient Hence it is, that a very considerable portion of the first book genealogies. of Chronicles is composed of genealogical tables: the com- In exhibiting genealogical tables with any specific design, parison of which, as well as of the genealogy recorded in some of the sacred writers, for the sake of brevity, omitted Gen. v. with the tables in Matt. i. and Luke iii. will contri-names which were of less importance, and distributed the bute materially to show the fulfilment of the prophecies re- genealogies into certain equal classes. Examples of this lative to the advent of the Messiah. Josephus states that the kind occur in Exod. vi. 14-24. 1 Chron. vi. 12-15. comJews had an uninterrupted succession of their high-priests pared with Ezra i. 5. and in Matt. i. 17. The Arabs have preserved in their records for the space of nearly two thou- not unfrequently taken a similar liberty in their genealogies.8 sand years; and that the priests in Judæa, and even in Egypt 995 The rahdars, or toll-gatherers, are appointed to levy a toll upon Kaflhes or caravans of merchants; "who in general exercise their office with so much brutality and extortion, as to be execrated by all travellers The police of the highways is confided to them, and whenever any goods are stolen, they are meant to be the instruments of restitution; but when they are put to the test, are found to be inefficient. None but a man in toll are farmed, consequently extortion ensues; and as most of the rahdars receive no other emolument than what they can exact over and above the prescribed dues from the traveller, their insolence is accounted for on the power can hope to recover what he has once lost....The collections of the one hand, and the detestation in which they are held on the other." Morier's Second Journey, p. 70. At Smyrna, the mirigee sits in the house allotted to him, as Matthew sat at the receipt of custom (or in the custom-house of Capernaum); "and receives the money which is due from various persons and commodities, entering into the city. The exactions and rude behaviour of these men" (says Mr. Hartley, who experienced both)" are just in character with the conduct of the publicans mentioned in the New Testament.". "....When men are guilty of such conduct as this, no wonder that they were detested in ancient times, as were the publicans; and in modern times, as are the mirizees." (Hartley's Researches in Greece, p. 239.) a Lardner's Credibility, part i. book i. c. 9. $10, 11. Carpzovii Appara tus Antiquitatum Sacri Codicis, pp. 29, 30. As the Christians subsequently were ollen terined Galilæans, and were represented as a people hostile to all government, and its necessary supports, St. Paul in Rom. xiii. 6. studiously obviates this slander; and enjoins the payment of tribute to civil governors, because, as all governments derive their authority from God, rulers are his ministers, attending upon this very thing, viz. the public ad ministration, to protect the good and to punish the evil doer. (Gilpin and Valpy on Rom. xiii. 6.) • Morier's Second Journey, p. 71. • Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 250. II. From the remotest ages, mankind have been desirous of perpetuating the memory of remarkable events, not only for their own benefit, but also in order to transmit them to posterity; and in proportion to the antiquity of such events has been the simplicity of the PUBLIC MEMORIALS employed to preserve the remembrance of them. When, therefore, any remarkable event befell the patriarchs, they raised either a rude stone or a heap of stones in the very place where such event had happened. (Gen. xxviii. 18. xxxi. 45, 46.) Sometimes, also, they gave names to places importing the nature of the transactions which had taken place (Gen. xvi. 14. xxi. 31. xxii. 14. xxviii. 19. xxxi. 47-49.); and symbolical names were sometimes given by them to individuals. (Gen. xxv. 26.30.) To this usage the Almighty is represented as vouchsafing to accommodate himself, in Gen. xvii. 5. 15. and xxxii. 28, 29. Conformably to this custom, Moses enjoined the Israelites to erect an altar of great stones on which the law was to be inscribed, after they had crossed the river Jordan (Deut. |