the assembly of the wicked have enclosed me; and as the titles are generally considered as names, either of musical psalmist, in the forty-second psalm, rather chose to compare instruments or of tunes. himself to a hart than a hind (see ver. 1.), the twentysecond psalm much better answers this title, in which he speaks of his hunted soul in the feminine gender, Deliver my soul from the sword, my darling (which in the original is feminine) from the power of the dog. Every one that reflects on the circumstances of David, at the time to which the fifty-sixth psalm refers (see 1 Sam. xxi. 11-15. xxii. 1.), and considers the oriental taste, will not wonder to see that psalm entitled the dumb in distant places; nor are lilies more improper to be made the title of other psalms, with proper distinctions, than a garden of anemonies is to be the name of a collection of moral discourses.2 Besides the psalms, whose titles have thus been considered and explained, there are forty-five called Mismor or psalms; viz. iii. iv. v. vi. viii. ix. xii. xiii. xv. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxix. xxxi. xxxvii. xxxix. xl. xli. xlvii. xlix. 1. li. lxii. lxiii. lxiv. lxxiii. lxxv. lxxvii. lxxix. lxxx. lxxxii. lxxxiv. lxxxv. xcviii. c. ci. cix. cx. cxxxix. cxl. cxli. and exlii. One is called Shir, or song (Psal. xlvi.); seven are called Mismor-Shir, or psalm-songs, viz. xxxi. lxv. lxvii. Ixviii. lxxv. lxxvii. and cxii.; and five are called Shir-Mismor, or song-psalms, xlviii. lxvi. lxxxiii. lxxxviii. and cviii. In what respects these titles differed, it is now impossible to ascertain, as Rabbi Kimchi, one of the most learned Jews, inge. nuously acknowledges; but we may infer that they combined both music and singing, which are indicated by the respective words psalm and song, with some modifications. In the Septuagint version these are called a psalm of an ode, and an ode of a psalm. Four are called Theophilah, or prayers, namely, xvii. lxxxvi. xc. and cii.; and the hundred and forty-fifth psalm is called Tehillah, or praise. So excellent, indeed, was this composition always accounted, that the title of the whole Book of Psalms, Sepher Tehillim, or the Book of Praises, was taken from it. It is wholly filled with the praises of God, expressed with such admirable devotion that the ancient Jews used to say," He could not fail of being an inhabitant of the heavenly Canaan, who repeated this psalm three times a day."3 Fifteen psalms, cxx. to cxxxiv. are entitled Shir-Hammachaloth, literally Songs of the Steps (in our English version, Songs of Degrees); or, as Bishop Lowth terms them, Odes of Ascension. They are supposed to have derived this name from their being sung, when the people came up either to worship in Jerusalem, at the annual festivals, or perhaps from the Babylonish captivity. In Ezra vii. 9. the return from captivity is certainly called "the ascension, or coming up from Babylon." The hundred and twenty-sixth psalm favours the latter hypothesis: but as some of these odes were composed before the captivity, the title may refer to either of these occasions, when the Jews went up to Jerusalem, which, it will be recollected, stood on a steep rocky ascent, in large companies, after the oriental manner, and perhaps beguiled their way by singing these psalms. For such an occasion, Jahn remarks, the appellation of ascensions was singularly adapted, as the inhabitants of the East, when speaking of a journey to the metropolis of their country, delight to use the word ascend. To ten psalms, viz. cvi. cxi. cxii. cxiii. cxxxv. cxlvi. to el. inclusive, is prefixed the title Hallelujah, which, as already intimated, forms part of the first verse in our English translation, and is rendered-Praise the Lord. The title Maschil is prefixed to psalms xxxii. xlii. xliv. lii. liii. liv. lv. lxxiv. lxxviii. lxxxviii. lxxxix. and exlii.; and as it is evidently derived from the Hebrew root SHAKAL, to be wise, to behave wisely or prudently, Calmet thinks it merely signifies to give instruction, and that the psalms to which it is prefixed are peculiarly adapted to that purpose: Rosenmüller coincides with him, as far as his remark applies to psalm xxxii., but rather thinks it a generic name for a particular kind of poem. It only remains that we briefly notice those psalms, whose According to Dr. Shaw, the eastern mode of hunting is, by assembling great numbers of people, and enclosing the creatures they hunt. Travels in Barbary and the Levant, 4to. p. 235. or vol. i. pp. 422, 423. 8vo. edit. 2 Harmer's Observations, vol. iii. pp. 146-149. Bishop Patrick, in loc. And therefore he thinks it was composed alphabetically, i. e. every verse beginning with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet, in order that it might be the more readily committed to memory Bishop Lowth, Prælect. xxv. in fine. Introd. ad Vet. Fœd. pp. 471, 472. Calmet and Dr. T. A. Clarisse are of opinion that the whole of the Psalms of Ascensions were sung at the time of the return from the captivity. Dissert. sur les Pseaumes quinze graduels-Dissert. tom. ii. part ii. pp. 323, 324. Clarisse, Psalmi Quindecim Hammaäloth, p. 23. 1. The first of these is Neginoth, which is prefixed to psalms iv. vi. liv. lv. lx. lxi. lxxvi.: it signifies stringed instruments of music to be played on by the fingers. Calmet proposes to translate the titles of those psalms, where this word is to be found, in the following manner :-A Psalm of David, to the master of music who presides over the stringed instruments. 2. Nehiloth, which is in the title of psalm v., is supposed to have been a wind instrument; but whether of the organ kind as Rosenmüller thinks, or of the flute kind as Calmet supposes, it is now impossible to determine. 3. Sheminith (Psalms vi. and xii.) is supposed to have been an octochord, or harp of eight strings; from the circumstance of its being united with the Neginoth in the title of Psalm vi., it is supposed to have been an accompaniment to the latter instrument. 4. Shiggaion (Psalm vii.), according to Houbigant, Parkhurst, and some others, means a wandering song; and is so called, because it was composed by David when a fugitive from the persecution of Saul. But Calmet says, that it signifies a song of consolation in distress, synonymous with an elegy; with him coincide Dr. Kennicott and Rosenmüller, who derive the word from an Arabic root, importing that the inspired writer of this psalm was overwhelmed with sorrow and anxiety at the time he composed it. 5. Gittith (Psalms viii. lxxxi. lxxxiv.), according to Rabbi Jarchi, signifies a musical instrument brought from Gath: but as the original Hebrew denotes wine-presses, Calmet thinks that it probably is an air or song which was sung at the time of vintage. Rosenmuller prefers the former derivation: both, however, may be true. The instrument bearing this name might have been used by the people of Gath, from whom it might have been adopted by the Jews, with whom it afterwards became a favourite instrument during the festivity and dances of the vintage. 6. For Muthlabben, which appears in the title of Psalm ix., upwards of twenty manuscripts of Dr. Kennicott's collation, and more than forty of De Rossi's, read almuth, which signifies virgins. Calmet thinks that a chorus of virgins is intended, and that La Ben, that is to Ben, refers to Ben or Benaiah, who was their precentor, and who is mentioned in 1 Chron. xv. 18. 20. 7. Mahalath (Psalm liii.) denotes a dance, such as was used at some peculiar festivals and occasions. (Compare Exod. xv. 20. Judg. xxi. 21. 1 Sam. xviii. 6.) According to Calmet, the title of this ode is" An instructive psalm of David for the chief master of dancing; or, for the chorus of singers and dancers." Mahalath-Leannoth (Psalm lxxxix.) probably means a responsive psalm of the same description. VIII. Of the word SELAH, which occurs upwards of seventy times in the book of Psalms, and three times in the prophecy of Habakkuk, it is by no means easy to determine the meaning: in the Septuagint it occurs still more frequently, being placed where it does not occur in the Hebrew original, and rendered by AIAYAAMA (diapsalma), which signifies a rest or pause, or, according to Suidas, a change of the song or modulation. Some imagine that it directed the time of the music, and was perhaps equivalent to our word slow, or according to some of our provincial dialects, "slaw," which, in a rapid pronunciation might easily be taken for Selah. Dr. Wall conjectures that it is a note, directing that the last words to which it is added should be repeated by the chorus; and observes, that it is always put after some remarkable or pathetic clause. Parkhurst and others are of opinion, that it was intended to direct the reader's particular attention to the passage: others, that it makes a new sense or change of the metre. Jerome says, that Selah connects what follows with what went before, and further expresses that the words to which it is affixed are of eternal moment; that is, are not applicable to any particular person or temporary circumstances, but ought to be remembered by all men, and for ever whence the Chaldee paraphrast renders it "for ever." Aquila, Symmachus, Geier, Forster, Buxtorf, and others, are of opionion that Selah has no signification but that it is a note of the ancient music, the use of which is now lost. Aben Ezra says, that it is like the conclusion of a prayer, answering nearly to amen. Meibomius, and after him Jahn, think that it means a repeat, and that it is equivalent to the Italian Da Capo. Calmet is of opinion that the ancient He Calmet, Commentaire Littérale, tom. iv. pp. xi.-xiv. liii. liv. Rosenmüller, Scholia in Psalmos, tom. i. cap. 4. De Psalmorum Inscriptionibus, et Explicatio Dictionum in Psalmorum Titulis obviarum, pp. xxv.--lviii. brew musicians sometimes put Selah in the margin of their interpreter in our language has remarked, with equal piety psalters, to show where a musical pause was to be made, and beauty, "are an epitome of the Bible, adapted to the and where the tune ended; just as in the copies of the Gos-purposes of devotion. They treat occasionally of the creapels, which were solemnly read in the early ages of the tion and formation of the world; the dispensations of ProChristian church, the Greek word Texas, telos, or the Latin vidence, and the economy of grace; the transactions of the word finis, was written in the margin, either at length or patriarchs; the exodus of the children of Israel; their jourwith a contraction, to mark the place where the deacon was ney through the wilderness, and settlement in Canaan; their to end the lesson; the divisions of chapters and verses being law, priesthood, and ritual; the exploits of their great men, unknown at that time; or else he thinks, the ancient Hebrews wrought through faith; their sins and captivities; their resang nearly in the same manner as the modern Arabians do,2 pentances and restorations; the sufferings and victories of with long pauses, ending all at once, and beginning all at David; the peaceful and happy reign of Solomon; the adonce; and therefore it was necessary, in the public services, vent of Messiah, with its effects and consequences; his into mark in the margin of the psalm as well the place of the carnation, birth, life, passion, death, resurrection, ascension, pause as the end, in order that the whole choir might suspend kingdom, and priesthood; the effusion of the Spirit; the their voices, or recommence their singing at the same time. conversion of the nations; the rejection of the Jews; the Rosenmüller, after Herder and A. F. Pfeiffer, declares in establishment, increase, and perpetuity of the Christian favour of Selah being a rest or pause, for the vocal perform-church; the end of the world; the general judgment; the ers, during which the musical instruments only were to be condemnation of the wicked, and the final triumph of the heard. Mr. Hewlett thinks it resembled our concluding righteous with their Lord and King. These are the subjects symphonies. It only remains that we notice the sentiment here presented to our meditations. We are instructed how to of Rabbi Kimchi, which has been adopted by Grotius and conceive of them aright, and to express the different affecothers. That eminent Jewish teacher says, that Selah is tions, which, when so conceived of, they must excite in our both a musical note, and a note of emphasis in the sense, by minds. They are, for this purpose, adorned with the figures, which we are called to observe something more than usually and set off with all the graces, of poetry; the poetry itself remarkable. It is derived from the Hebrew word o saLaL, is designed yet farther to be recommended by the charms of which signifies he raised or elevated; and denotes the eleva- music, thus consecrated to the service of God: that so detion of the voice in singing; and at the same time the lifting light may prepare the way for improvement, and pleasure up of the heart, the serious considering and meditating upon become the handmaid of wisdom, while every turbulent pasthe thing that is spoken. sion is calmed by sacred melody, and the evil spirit is still dispossessed by the harp of the son of Jesse. This little volume, like the paradise of Eden, affords us in perfection, though in miniature, every thing that groweth elsewhere, every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food: and above all, what was there lost, but is here restored-the tree of life in the midst of the garden. That which we read, as matter of speculation, in the other Scriptures, is reduced to practice, when we recite it in the Psalms; in those, repentance and faith are described, but in these they are acted: by a perusal of the former, we learn how others served God, but, by using the latter, we serve him ourselves. there necessary for man to know,' says the pious and judicious Hooker, which the psalms are not able to teach? They are to beginners an easy and familiar introduction, a mighty augmentation of all virtue and knowledge in such as are entered before, a strong confirmation to the most perfect among others. Heroical magnanimity, exquisite justice, grave moderation, exact wisdom, repentance unfeigned, unwearied patience, the mysteries of God, the sufferings of Christ, the terrors of wrath, the comforts of grace, the works of Providence over this world, and the promised joys of that world which is to come, all good necessarily to be either known, or done, or had, this one celestial fountain yieldeth. Let there be any grief or disease incident unto the soul of man, any wound or sickness named, for which there is not, in this treasure-house, a present comfortable remedy at all times ready to be found.'s In the language of this divine book, therefore, the prayers and praises of the church have been offered up to the throne of grace, from age to age. And it appears to have been the manual of the Son of God, in the days of his flesh; who, at the conclusion of his last supper, is generally supposed, and that upon good grounds, to have sung a hymn taken from it; who propsalm, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?' nounced, on the cross, the beginning of the twenty-second and expired with a part of the thirty-first psalm in his mouth, Into thy hands I commend my spirit.' Thus He, who had not the Spirit by measure, in whom were hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge, and who spake as never man spake, yet chose to conclude his life, to solace himself in his greatest agony, and at last to breathe out his soul, in the psalmist's form of words, rather than his own. No tongue of man or angel, as Dr. Hammond justly observes, can convey a higher idea of any book, and of their felicity who use it aright." That this word was of use in music and singing is evident from the manner in which, we have already remarked, it was rendered by the Septuagint translators; and that it is also a mark of observation and meditation, may be inferred from its being joined in Psal. ix. 16. with the word Higgaion, which signifies meditation. Now, though in some passages Selah may appear to be used where there is no emphatic word or sense, yet it may be applied not only to the immediately preceding word or verse, but also to the whole series of verses or periods to which it is subjoined. And if it be thus considered, we shall find that it is used with great propriety, and for the best of purposes, viz. to point out to us something well worthy of our most attentive observation; and that it calls upon us to revolve in our minds, with great seriousness, the matter placed before us.3 IX. "The hearts of the pious in all ages have felt the value of the Psalms as helps to devotion; and many have laboured for expressions, in which to set forth their praise.' All the fathers of the church are unanimously eloquent in their commendation of the Psalms. Athanasius styles them an epitome of the whole Scriptures: Basil, a compendium of all theology; Luther, a little Bible, and the summary of the Old Testament; and Melancthon, the most elegant writing in the whole world. How highly the Psalter was valued subsequently to the Reformation, we may easily conceive by the very numerous editions of it which were executed in the infancy of printing, and by the number of commentators who have undertaken to illustrate its sacred pages. Carpzov, who wrote a century ago, enumerates upwards of one hundred and sixty; and of the subsequent modern expositors of this book it would perhaps be difficult to procure a correct account. "The Psalms," as their best 1 Simon, Histoire Critique du Nouv. Test. ch. xxxiii. 1718. 12mo. D'Arvieux's Travels in Arabia the Desert, p. 52. English translation, Calmet, Dissertation sur Sela, Commentaire, tom. iv. pp. xvi.-xviii. Hewlett in loc. Rosenmüller, Scholia in Psalmos, tom. i. pp. lix.-lxii. Dr. John Edwards, on the Authority, Style, and Perfection of Scripture, vol. iii. p. 373. Jahn, Introd. ad Vet. Foed. p. 471. Biel and Schleusner, Lexi con in LXX. voce Axtarμe. In addition to the observation already offered, it may be stated that Professor Wilson has announced the following ingenious conjecture respecting the derivation and import of the word Selah:-The root of the word, he remarks, appears evidently to lie in the two first letters which are in contraction for D. to raise, to exalt, to magnify. The he considers as an abbreviation for ; so that the word D (seLaH) is a contracted form of D, celebrate ye Jehovah, or exalt the Lord, viz. in songs of praise accompanied with musical instruments, and is nearly of the same import with 1, in our characters Hallelujah, in Greek letters 'AAAλou, that is, Praise ye the Lord. This conjecture receives strong confirmation from the latter part of the fourth verse of Psalm lxviii. which is thus translated, Extol him that rideth upon the heavens by the name JAH. It is highly probable that the meaning here assigned to Selah is the true one, as it corresponds to the dignity and chief end of devotional music, in which the singers and players were frequently reminded of the sacred intention of their solemn prayers, praises, and adoration. All were designed to magnify the name, the nature, the perfections, excellences, and works of Jehovah the only true God. In this sublime exercise the church on earth are fellow-worshippers, in perfect concord with the church in heaven. See Rev. xix. 1-3. (Wilson's Elements of Hebrew Grammar, pp. 315, 316. 4th edit.) • What is The number of psalms, which are throughout more eminently and directly prophetical of the Messiah, is indeed comparatively small: but the passages of particular psalms which are predictive of him in various ways are very numeThe late Bishop Horne. Hooker, Ecclesiast. Pol, book v. sect. 37. Matthew informs us, chap. xxvi. 30. that he and his apostles sung an hymn; and the hymn usually sung by the Jews, upon that occasion, was what they called "the great Hallel," consisting of the Psalms from the cxiiith to the cxviiith inclusive. ▾ Bishop Horne on the Psalms, vol. i. Preface, pp. i.—iv. TABLE OF THE PSALMS, classed according to their several subjects, and adapted to the 1. Prayers for pardon of sin, Psal. vi. xxv. xxxviii. li. cxxx. Psalms styled penitential, vi. xxii. xxxviii. li. cii. exxx. cxliii. rous, no part of the Old Testament being cited in the New XI. We shall conclude this section, the importance of so frequently as this book. That those psalms which were whose subject must apologize for its apparently disproportioncomposed by David himself were prophetic, we have David's ate length, with the following common but very useful own authority: "which," Bishop Horsley remarks, “may be allowed to overpower a host of modern expositors. For thus King David, at the close of his life, describes himself and his sacred songs: David the son of Jesse said, and the man who was raised up on high, the anointed of the God of Jacob, and the sweet psalmist of Israel, said, The Spirit of Jehovah spake by me, and his word was in my tongue. (2 Sam. xxiii. 1, 2.) It was the word, therefore, of Jehovah's Spirit which was uttered by David's tongue. But, it should seem, the Spirit of Jehovah would not be wanting to enable a mere man to make complaint of his own enemies, to describe his own sufferings just as he felt them, and his own escapes just as they happened. But the Spirit of Jehovah described, by David's utterance, what was known to that Spirit only, and that Spirit, only could describe. So that, if David be allowed to have had any knowledge of the true subject of his own compositions, it was nothing in his own life, but something put into his mind by the Holy Spirit of God, and the misapplication of the Psalms to the literal David has done more mischief than the misapplication of any other parts of the Scriptures, among those who profess the belief of the Christian religion." For a table of those portions of the Psalms which are strictly prophetical of the Messiah, see Vol. I. Part I. Chap. IV. Sect. II. § 1. X. The book of Psalms being composed in Hebrew verse, must generally be studied and investigated agreeably to the structure of Hebrew poetry; but in addition to the remarks already offered on this subject, there are a few observations more particularly applicable to these songs of Sion, which will enable the reader to enter more fully into their force and meaning. 1. Investigate the Argument of each Psalm. This is sometimes intimated in the prefixed title: but as these inscriptions are not always genuine, it will be preferable, in every case, to deduce the argument from a diligent and attentive reading of the psalm itself, and then to form our opinion concerning the correctness of the title, if there be any. 2. With this view, examine the Historical Origin of the Psalm, or the circumstances that led the sacred poet to compose it. Besides investigating the occasion upon which a psalm was written, much advantage and assistance may be derived from studying the psalms chronologically, and comparing thein with the historical books of the Old Testament, particularly those which treat of the Israelites and Jews, from the origin of their monarchy to their return from the Babylonish captivity. Of the benefit that may be obtained from such a comparison of the two books of Samuel, we have already given some striking examples. 3. Ascertain the Author of the Psalm. This is frequently intimated in the inscriptions; but as these are not always to be depended upon, we must look for other more certain criteria by which to ascertain correctly the real author of any psalm. The histori cal circumstances, which are very frequently as well as clearly indicated, and the poetical character impressed on the compositions of each of the inspired poets, will enable us to accomplish this very important object. Let us take, for instance, the Psalms of David. Not only does he allude to his own personal circumstances, to the dangers to which he was exposed, the persecutions he endured, the wars in which he was engaged, his heinous sin against God, and the signal blessings conferred upon him; but his psalms are further stamped with a peculiar character, by which, if it be carefully attended to, we may easily distinguish him from every other inspired author of the Psalins. Hence we find him repeating the same words and ideas almost perpetually; complaining of his afflictions and troubles; imploring help from God in the most earnest supplications; professing his confidence in God in the strongest manner; rejoicing in the answers graciously vouchsafed to his prayers; and labouring to express his gratitude for all the blessings conferred upon him. Again, in what ardent language does he express his longing desire to behold the sanctuary of God, and join with the multitude of those who kept holyday! With what animation does he describe the solemn pomp with which the ark was conducted to Jerusalem! &c. Of all the sacred poets, David is the most pleasing and tender. The style of David has been imitated by the other psalmists, who have borrowed and incorporated many of his expressions and images in their odes; but these imitations may easily be distinguished from their archetype, by the absence of that elegance and force which always characterize the productions of an original author. 4. Attend to the Structure of the Psalms. The Psalms, being principally designed for the national worship of the Jews, are adapted to choral singing; attention, therefore, to the choral structure of these compositions will enable us better to enter into their spirit and meaning.4 Dr. Good has happily succeeded in showing the choral divisions of many of these sacred poems, in his version of the Psalms. 1 Bishop Horsley's Psalms, vol. i. p. xiv. Calmet has a very fine passage on the scope of the book of Psalms, as pointing to the Messiah; it is too long to cite, and would be impaired by abridgment. See his Commentaire, vol. vi. pp. vi. viii., or Dissertations, tom. ii. pp. 197-199. 2 See Vol. I. Part II. Chap. II. § VIII. > See p. 220. of this volume. • Bauer, Herm. Sacr. pp. 392–394. his own integrity, and the uprightness of his cause, Psal. vii. xvii. xxvi. Psal. iv. v. xi. xxviii. xli. lv. lix. lxiv. lxx, cix. cxx. cxl. exli. exliii. 1. Thanksgivings for mercies vouchsafed to particular persons, Psal. ix. xviii. xxii. xxx. xxxiv. xl. lxxv. ciiì, cviii. exvi. exviii, exxxviii. exliv. 2. Thanksgivings for mercies vouchsafed to the Israelites in general, Psal. xlvi. xlviii. Ixv. lxvi. lxviii. lxvi. lxxxi. lxxxv. xcviii. cv. cxxiv. cxxvi. cxxix. cxxxv. cxxxvi. cxlix. I. 2. The excellence of God's laws, Psal. xix. cxix. 5. The virtue of humility, Psal. cxxxi. V. Psalms more eminently and directly Prophetical. Psal. ii. xvi. xxii. xl. xlv. lxviii. lxxii. lxxxvii. cx. cxviii. Psal. lxxviii. cv. cvi. SECTION III. ON THE BOOK OF PROVERBS. Title, author, and canonical authority.—II. Scope.-III. Synopsis of its contents.-IV. Observations on its style, use, and importance. I. THE book of Proverbs has always been ascribed to Solomon, whose name it bears, though, from the frequent repetition of the same sentences, as well as from some variations in style which have been discovered, doubts have been entertained whether he really was the author of every maxim it comprises. "The latter part of it, from the beginning of the twenty-fifth chapter, forming evidently an appendix, was collected after his death, and added to what appears to have been more immediately arranged by himself." The proverbs in the thirtieth chapter are expressly called The words of Agur the son of Jakeh; and the thirty-first chapter is entitled The words of king Lemuel. It seems certain that the collection called the PROVERBS of SOLOMON was arranged in the order in which we now have it by different hands; but it is not therefore to be concluded that they are not the productions of Solomon, who, we are informed, spoke no less than three thousand proverbs. (1 Kings iv. 32.) As it is nowhere said that Solomon himself made a collection of proverbs and On the peculiar nature of the Hebrew Proverbs, see Vol. I. Part II. It is not said that these proverbs were written compositions, but sim ply that Solomon spake them. Hence Mr. Holden thinks it not improbable that the Hebrew monarch spoke them in assemblies collected for the pur pose of hearing him discourse. Attempt to Illustrate the Book of Eccle siastes, p. xliv. served, and the parts are very aptly connected. It is embellished with many beautiful descriptions and personifications: the diction is polished, and abounds with all the ornaments of poetry, so that it scarcely yields in elegance and splendour to any of the Sacred Writings.6 sentences, the general opinion is, that several persons made | poetical: the order of the subject is, in general, excellently prea collection of them, perhaps as they were uttered by him. Hezekiah, among others, as mentioned in the twenty-fifth chapter: Agur, Isaiah, and Ezra might have done the same. The Jewish writers affirm that Solomon wrote the Canticles, or song bearing his name, in his youth, the Proverbs in his riper years, and Ecclesiastes in his old age. Michaelis has observed, that the book of Proverbs is frequently cited by the apostles, who considered it as a treasure of revealed morality, whence Christians were to derive their rules of conduct; and the canonical authority of no book of the Old Testament is so well ratified by the evidence of quotations as that of the Proverbs: whence he justly infers that every commentator on the Greek Testament ought to be intimately acquainted with the Septuagint version of the book of Proverbs, and that every Christian divine should consider it as the chief source of scriptural morality.2 II. The SCOPE of this book is, "to instruct men in the deepest mysteries of true wisdom and understanding, the height and perfection of which is, the true knowledge of the divine will, and the sincere fear of the Lord. (Prov. i. 2-7. ix. 10.)" To this end, the book is filled with the choicest sententious aphorisms, infinitely surpassing all the ethical sayings of the ancient sages, and comprising in themselves distinct doctrines, duties, &c. of piety towards God, of equity and benevolence towards man, and of sobriety and temperance; together with precepts for the right education of children, and for the relative situations of subjects, magistrates, and sovereigns. III. The book of Proverbs is divided by Moldenhawer and Heidegger (whose arrangement was followed in the former editions of this work) into five parts: but the late Dr. John Mason Good has divided it into four distinct books or parts, "each of which," he observes, "is distinguished both by an obvious introduction and a change of style and manner, though its real method and arrangement seem, hitherto, to have escaped the attention of our commentators and interpreters."4 PART I. The Proem or Exordium. (ch. i.—ix.) of Solomon," comprises short sententious Declarations for the PART II. To which is prefixed the Title of "The Proverbs Use of persons who have advanced from Youth to Manhood. (ch. x.-xxii. 16.) These sententious declarations are generally unconnected, although sometimes a connection with the preceding sentence may be discovered. They treat on the various duties of man towards God, and towards his fellow-men in every station of life. "The great object in each of the proverbs or axioms of the present part is, to enforce a moral principle in words so few, that they may be easily learnt, and so curiously selected and arranged, that they may strike and fix the attention instantaneously: whilst to prevent the mind from becoming fatigued by a long series of detached sentences, they are perpetually diversified by the most playful changes of style and figure.” PART III. Contains a Miscellaneous Collection of Proverbs, principally relating to rich Men and Nobles, (ch. xxii. 17. -xxiv.) PART IV. "Is a Posthumous Appendix, consisting of various Parabolic Compositions, written and communicated by Solomon on different Occasions, but never published by himself in an arranged Form; yet altogether worthy of the Place they hold in the Sacred Scriptures." (ch. xxv.-xxxi.) SECT. 1. Comprises a collection of Solomon's Proverbs, which (as the title shows, xxv. 1.) was made by the learned under the reign of Hezekiah. (xxv.-xxix.) The proverbs in this section are unconnected, and some of them are repetitions of the moral aphorisms which are delivered in the former part of the book. 66 SECT. 2. Is composed of the ethical precepts delivered by Agur the son of Jakeh" to his friends Ithiel and Ucal. That Agur, Jakeh, Ithiel, and Ucal, are proper names, admits of no contradiction, though it is impossible at this distance of time to ascertain who they were. Jerome mistook the proper name Agur for an appellative, and in the Latin Vulgate has translated the expression thus, without any meaning:-" Verba Congregantis, filii Vomentis," which, in the Anglo-Romish version from the Vulgate, is with equal unintelligibility rendered, "The Words of Gatherer, the son of Vomiter." Some critics In this part heavenly wisdom and the true knowledge of God are set forth with great copiousness and variety of expression, as the only source and foundation of true virtue and happiness. "It is chiefly confined to the conduct of juvenescence or early life, before a permanent condition is made choice of.... All the most formidable dangers to which this season of life is exposed, and the sins which most easily beset it, are painted with the hand of a master. And, whilst the progress and issues of vice are exhibited under a variety of the most striking de-are of opinion, that, by Jakeh, David is meant, and by Agur, lineations and metaphors in their utmost deformity and horror, all the beauties of language, and all the force of eloquence, are poured forth in the diversified form of earnest expostulation, insinuating tenderness, captivating argument, picturesque description, daring personification, and sublime allegory, to win the ingenuous youth to virtue and piety, and to fix him in the steady pursuit of his duties towards God and towards man. Virtue is pronounced in the very outset to be essential wisdom; and vice or wickedness, essential folly and the personifications, thus forcibly struck out at the opening of the work, are continued to its close. The only wise man, therefore, is declared to be the truly good and virtuous, or he that fears God and reverences his law whilst the man of vice or wickedness is a fool, a dolt, an infatuated sot, a stubborn, froward, or perverse wretch, and an These admonitory verses "are an inimitable production, as abomination to Jehovah."5 This portion of the book of Pro-well in respect to their actual materials, as the delicacy with which verbs, says Bishop Lowth, is varied, elegant, sublime, and truly Solomon; and some fanciful expositors think that Ithiel and Ucal mean Christ: but these hypotheses are examined and refuted by Mr. Holden. The same close observation of nature, and sententious form, which characterize the precepts of Solomon, are to be found in the proverbs of Agur, whose admirable prayer (xxx. 7-9.) will ever be justly admired for its piety, and for the contented spirit which it breathes. It exactly corresponds with the petition in the Lord's Prayer-Give us this day rev apтov пμær TV STRUσv,—not our daily bread,—but bread or food sufficient for us.10 SECT. 3. Contains the admonitions given to King Lemuel" by his mother a queen, when he was in the flower of youth and high expectation. (xxxi.) they are selected. Instead of attempting to lay down rules con- closely." In the exquisite description of a virtuous woman, in xxxi. 10—31., the initial letters of the verses follow the order of the Hebrew alphabet. IV. The Proverbs of Solomon hold a conspicuous rank among the metrical books of the Old Testament. Not only are they admirably adapted to convey instruction by the treasures of practical wisdom which they open to us, but they also afford us a noble specimen of the didactic poetry of the Hebrews, the nature of which they enable us to understand by means of the antithetic parallels with which they abound. Much, indeed, of the elegance, acuteness, and force, which are discernible in Solomon's wise sayings, is derived from the antithetic form, the opposition of diction and sentiment. Hence a careful attention to the parallelism of members (which topic has already been largely discussed in the first volume of this work) will contribute to remove that obscurity in which some of the proverbs appear to be involved. Sometimes, also, one member or part of a proverb must be supplied from the other; or, as Glassius has expressed it in other words, sometimes one thing is expressed in one member, and another in the other, and yet both are to be understood in both members. Thus, in Prov. x. 14. we read, Wise men lay up knowledge: But the mouth of the foolish is near destruction. The meaning of which is, that wise men communicate, for the benefit of others, the wisdom they have acquired and preserved; while fools, being destitute of that knowledge, soon exhaust their scanty stock, and utter not merely useless but even injurious things. Again, A wise son maketh a glad father: But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. Prov. x. 1. Both the father and mother are to be understood in the two members of this passage, although in the first the father only is noticed, and in the second the mother only is mentioned. Lastly, many things which are spoken generally, are to be restrained to particular individuals and circumstances: as, however, this rule has already been illustrated at length, it will not be necessary to multiply additional examples. The author, with much pleasure, refers his readers to the Rev. Mr. Holden's "Attempt towards an Improved Translation of the Proverbs of Solomon," with Notes, as the best critical help to an exact understanding of this fine compendium of ethics that is extant in the English language. SECTION IV. ON THE BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES. I. Title, author, and canonical authority.-II. Scope and synopsis.-III. Observations. I. THE title of this book in our Bibles is derived from the Septuagint version, EKKAHEJAΣTHE signifying a preacher, or one who harangues a public congregation. In Hebrew it is termed, from the initial word ♫ (KOHELеTH), “the Preacher;" by whom may be intended, either the person assembling the people, or he who addresses them when convened. Although this book does not bear the name of Solomon, it is evident from several passages that he was the author of it. Compare ch. i. 12. 16. ii. 4-9. and xii. 9, 10. The celebrated Rabbi Kimchi, however, ascribes it to the prophet Isaiah; and the Talmudical writers to Hezekiah. Grotius, from some foreign expressions which he thinks are discoverable in it, conceives that it was composed by order of Zerubbabel for his son Abihud; Jahn, after some later German critics, for the same reason, thinks it was written after the Babylonish captivity; and Zirkel imagines that it was composed about the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, from some traces of the notions of the Pharisees and Sadducees which he conceives he has discovered in this book, and against which he supposes it to be directed.1 But it is not likely that those Jewish sects would permit a work levelled Dr. Good's Dissertation on the Book of Proverbs, in Dr. Gregory's Memoirs of his Life, p 305. On the Nature of the Scripture Proverbs, see Vol. I. Part II. Book II. Chap. I. Sect. VI. See Vol. I. Part II. Book II. Chap. VI. Sect. I. The opinion of these and of other writers are satisfactorily refuted by the Rev. Mr. Holden, in his "Attempt to Illustrate the Book of Ecclesiastes." (8vo. London, 1822.) Preliminary Discourse, pp. v.--xxviii. against themselves to be inserted in the sacred canon; and with regard to the foreign expressions alleged by Grotius (supposing all of them to be really foreign expressions, which, however, is not the case), their appearance may be accounted for by the circumstance of Solomon's having indulged in sinful intercourse "with strange women" (1 Kings xi. 1, 2.), whose language he probably acquired. phenomena in the natural world, and their causes, of the The beautiful descriptions which this book contains of the circulation of the blood (as the late Bishop Horsley thought), and of the economy of the human frame, all show it to be the work of a philosopher. It is generally supposed to have been written by Solomon in his old age, after he had repented of his sinful practices, and when, having seen and observed much, as well as having enjoyed every thing that he could wish, he was fully convinced of the vanity of every thing except piety towards God. The Rabbinical writers inform us, who, after the captivity, collected the Inspired Writings into and their account is corroborated by Jerome, that the Jews, the canon, at first refused to admit this book into the sacred code, in consequence of some heresies and contradictions, which, from inattention to the author's scope and design, they imagined to exist in it. But, after considering the expressions it contains towards the close, relative to the fear of God and the observation of his laws, they concluded to receive it; and its canonical authority has been recognised ever since. There can, indeed, be no doubt of its title to admission: Solomon was eminently distinguished by the illumination of the divine Spirit, and had even twice witnessed the divine presence. (1 Kings iii. 5. ix. 2. xi. 9.) The tendency of the book is excellent when rightly under stood; and Solomon speaks in it with great clearness of the revealed truths of a future life and of a future judgment.7 Bishop Lowth has classed this book among the didactic poetry of the Hebrews: but Mr. Des Voeux considers it as a philosophical discourse written in a rhetorical style, and interspersed with verses, which are introduced as occasion served; whence it obtained a place among the poetical books. To this opinion Bishop Lowth subsequently declared his assent. II. The SCOPE of this book is explicitly announced in ch. 1. 2. and xiii. 13., viz. to demonstrate the vanity of all earthly objects, and to draw off men from the pursuit of them, as an apparent good, to the fear of God, and communion with him, as to the highest and only permanent good in this life, and to show that men must seek for happiness beyond the grave. We may therefore consider it as an inquiry into that most important and disputed question,-What is the Sovereign Good of man,-that which is ultimately good, and which in all its bearings and relations is conducive to the best inte rests of man? What is that good for the sons of men, which they should do under the heaven all the days of their life? (ii. 3.) "This is the object of the preacher's inquiry; and, after discussing various erroneous opinions, he finally determines that it consists in TRUE WISDOM. The scope of the whole argument, therefore, is the praise and recommendation of WISDOM, as the supreme good to creatures responsible for their actions. In this wisdom is not included a single particle of that which is worldly and carnal, so frequently possessed by men addicted to vice, the minions of avarice, and the slaves of their passions; but that which is from above, that which is holy, spiritual, and undefiled, and which, in the writings of Solomon, is but another word for Religion. Guided by this clue, we can easily traverse the intricate Of the four words which Grotius asserts to be foreign, viz. "VD (SIR) a THORN, Eccl. vii. 6. 72 (ABJONɑH) desire, xii. 5., WD (PasHan) to interpret, viii. 1., and 3D (GUMATZ) a pit, x. 8.,-two only can at all be con sidered as belonging to his argument; for the first occurs in Exod. xvi. 3. and 2 Kings iv. 39. (Heb.), and the second may be derived from the Hebrew root N (ABAH) to wish and although the last two are at present only to be found in the Chaldee, it does not therefore necessarily follow that they are not Hebrew, for how many other words are there in the He brew language, the roots of which are now only to be found in the kindred Arabic or Chaldee dialect? And if they shall be deemed genuine Hebrew words, there surely is no reason why the last two words above cited should not equally be true and proper Hebrew. It is indeed wonderful, as Witsius has long ago remarked, to observe of what trifling pretexts learned men sometimes avail themselves, in order to support paradoxes. (Witsii, Miscellanea Sacra, lib. i. p. 227. Alber, Interpretatio Scripturæ, tom. viii. p. 189.) But the philological speculations of Grotius are surpassed by those of the late Professor Eichhorn, which are satisfactorily refuted by Mr. Holden in his translation of Ecclesiastes, Prel. Diss. p. xiii. Bp. Horsley's Sermons, vol. iii. pp. 189, 190. Mr. Holden has refuted this hypothesis, Ecclesiastes, pp. 173, 174. Carpzov, Introd. ad Libros Vet. Test. part ii. p. 222. Bp. Gray's Key, p. 292. In his "Philosophical and Critical Essay on the Book of Ecclesiastes,' 4to. London, 1760. |