teachers in the church itself, who corrupted the doctrines of the Gospel for worldly purposes, while they assumed the appearance of great disinterestedness and piety. 66 IV. In all countries the stage has ever furnished different languages with some of the most beautiful Metaphors and ALLUSIONS that adorn them. In every tongue we read of the II. MILITARY SPORTS and exercises appear to have been drama of human life: its scenes are described as continually common in the earlier periods of the Jewish history. By shifting and varying: mortal life is represented as an intrithese the Jewish youth were taught the use of the bow cate plot, which will gradually unfold and finally wind up (1 Sam. xx. 20. 30-35.), or the hurling of stones from a into harmony and happiness; and the world is styled a magsling with unerring aim. (Judg, xx. 16. 1 Chron. xii. 2.)nificent theatre, in which God has placed us,-assigned to Jerome informs us, that in his days (the fourth century) it every man a character,-is a constant spectator how he supwas a common exercise throughout Judæa for the young men, ports this character, and will finally applaud or condemn who were ambitious to give proof of their strength, to lift according to the good or bad execution of the part, whatever up round stones of enormous weight, some as high as their it is, he has been appointed to act. The drama was instiknees, others to their navel, shoulders, or head, while others tuted to exhibit a striking picture of human life, and, in a placed them at the top of their heads, with their hands erect faithful mirror, to hold up to the spectator's view that misand joined together. He further states, that he saw at Athens cellany of characters which diversify it, and those interan extremely heavy brazen sphere or globe, which he vainly changes and reverses of fortune which chequer it.10 It is endeavoured to lift; and that on inquiring into its use, he scarcely necessary to remark, though the observation is prowas informed, that no one was permitted to contend in the per for the sake of illustrating a very beautiful passage in games until, by his lifting of this weight, it was ascertained one of St. Paul's Epistles, that a variety of scenes is painted, who could be matched with him. From this exercise Jerome which by means of the requisite machinery are very freelucidates a difficult passage in Zech. xii. 3., in which the pro- quently shifting, in order to show the characters in a variety phet compares Jerusalem to a stone of great weight, which of places and fortunes. To the spectator, lively and affecting being too heavy for those who attempted to lift it up, or even views are by turns displayed, sometimes, for example, of to remove it, falls back upon them, and crushes them to pieces.2 Thebes, sometimes of Athens, one while of a palace, at III. Among the great changes which were effected in the another of a prison; now of a splendid triumph, and now manners and customs of the Jews, subsequently to the time of a funeral procession,-every thing, from the beginning to of Alexander the Great, may be reckoned the introduction of the catastrophe, perpetually varying and changing according GYMNASTIC SPORTS and GAMES, in imitation of those cele- to the rules and conduct of the drama. Agreeably to this, brated by the Greeks; who, it is well known, were passion- with what elegance and propriety does St. Paul, whom we ately fond of theatrical exhibitions. These amusements they find quoting Menander, one of the most celebrated writers of carried, with their victorious arms, into the various countries the Greek comedy, represent the fashion of this world as of the East; the inhabitants of which, in imitation of their continually passing away,2 and all the scenes of this vain masters, addicted themselves to the same diversions, and and visionary life as perpetually shifting! •The imagery," endeavoured to distinguish themselves in the same exercises. says Grotius," is taken from the theatre, where the scenery The profligate high-priest Jason, in the reign of Antiochus is suddenly changed, and exhibits an appearance totally difEpiphanes, first introduced public games at Jerusalem, where ferent."13 And as the transactions of the drama are not real, he erected a gymnasium, or "place for exercise, and for the but fictitious and imaginary, such and such characters being training up of youth in the fashions of the heathen." (2 Macc. assumed and personated, in whose joys or griefs, in whose iv. 9.) The avowed purpose of these athletic exercises domestic felicities or infelicities, in whose elevation or dewas, the strengthening of the body; but the real design went pression, the actor is not really and personally interested, but to the gradual change of judaism for heathenism, as was only supports a character, perhaps entirely foreign from his clearly indicated by the pains which many took to efface the own, and represents passions and affections in which his own mark of circumcision. The games, besides, were closely heart has no share: how beautiful and expressive, when conconnected with idolatry; for they were generally celebrated sidered in this light, is that passage of Scripture wherein the in honour of some pagan god. The innovations of Jason apostle is inculcating a Christian indifference for this world, were therefore extremely odious to the more pious part of the and exhorting us not to suffer ourselves to be unduly affected nation, and even his own adherents did not enter fully into either by the joys or sorrows of so fugitive and transitory a all his views." They also produced a demoralizing effect scene! (1 Cor. vii. 29-31.) But this I say, brethren, the upon the Jews. Even the very priests, neglecting the duties time is short. It remaineth that both they that have wives be as of their sacred office, hastened to be partakers of these un- though they had none: and they that weep as though they wept lawful sports, and were ambitious of obtaining the prizes not and they that rejoice as though they rejoiced not: and they awarded to the victors. (10-15.) The restoration of divine that buy as though they possessed not: and they that use this worship, and of the observance of the Mosaic laws and insti-world as not abusing it.14 For the fashion of this world passeth tutions under the Maccabæan princes, put an end to these For the following account of the theatrical representations, and of the spectacles. They were, however, revived by Herod, who, Grecian games alluded to in the New Testament, the author is indebted to in order to ingratiate himself with the emperor Augustus Dr. Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. sections 1. and 4., collated with Bruning's Compendium Antiquitatum Græcarum e profanis Sacrarum, pp. 352 (B. C. 7.), built a theatre at Jerusalem, and also a capacious-376., from which treatise Dr. H. appears to have derived a considerable amphitheatre, without the city, in the plain; and who also portion of his materials. erected similar edifices at Cæsarea, and appointed games to be solemnized every fifth year with great splendour, and amid a vast concourse of spectators, who were invited by proclamation from the neighbouring countries. Josephus' narrative of these circumstances is not sufficiently minute to enable us to determine with accuracy all the exhibitions which took place on these occasions. But we may collect, that they consisted of wrestling, chariot-racing, music, and combats of wild beasts, which either fought with one another, or within men who were under sentence of death :-a barbarous amusement which has happily been abolished by the beneficent influence of the Gospel. Further, the most distinguished wrestlers were invited to attend by the promise of very great rewards to the victors. The Gentiles were highly delighted with these exhibitions, which were so utterly repugnant to the laws and customs of the Jews, that they regarded them plane ostendit faciem. Grotius, ad loc. Mais comme Grotius remarque 4 with the utmost horror and detestation." 1 Dr. Macknight on Eph. iv. 14. 8 Σκηνη πας ο βιος, και παιγνιον" ή μάθε παίζειν, Epicteti Enchirid. cap. 17. p. 699. Upton. Epicteti Dissertationes ab 11 12 Cor. vii. 31. Παράγει γαρ το σχήμα του κόσμου τούτου. 13 Dicitur, apagar To σxnx T xs, ubi scena invertitur, aliamque que cette reflexion de l' Apôtre est empruntée du théâtre, et que le mot Grec x, que l'on traduit la figure, signifie proprement un personnage de théâtre, ou une décoration dans Euripide et dans Aristophane, et que Jerome on Zech. xii. 3. (Op. tom. iii. col. 1780. edit. Benedictin.) W. les Grecs disoient pour marquer le changement de scène, ou de décoration Lowth on Zech. xii. 3. Jahn's Hist. of the Hebrew Commonwealth, vol. i. p. 308. 4 Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xv. c. 8. § 1. Bell. Jud. lib. i. c. 21. §8. The different passages of Josephus are examined in detail by Eichhorn (to whom we are indebted for the facts above stated) in his Commentatio de Judæorum Re Scenica, inserted in the second volume of the Commentationes Societatis Regiæ Gottingensis Re. centiores. Gottingae, 1813. 4to. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xv. c. 8. §§ 1, 2. du théâtre aрXY TO OXYM T σx, on croit qu'il faudroit traduire, La face de ce monde change, ce qui convient parfaitement au dessein de l'Apôtre dans cette conjoncture. Projet d'une Nouvelle Version, par le Cene, p. 674. Rotter. 1696. 14 Kelaxpμsvo is very unhappily rendered abuse. It is here used in a good sense, as the whole passage requires. From the transiency of human life the apostle observes, that those who are now using this world's happi ness will soon be as those who had never enjoyed it. The Greek writers use Παρα χρασμα. Οι Αποκραομαι to abuse. away. If we keep in mind the supposed allusion in the text | combat with wild beasts in the theatre," as Roman citizens (the fashion of this world passeth away), we shall discern a were never subjected to such a degradation: "he seems peculiar beauty and force in his language and sentiment. For only to have employed this strong phraseology, to denote the actors in a play, whether it be comedy or tragedy, do not the violence and ferocity of his adversaries, which resembled act their own proper and personal concerns, but only perso- the rage and fury of brutes, and to compare his contention nate and mimic the characters and conditions of other men. with these fierce pagan zealots and fanatics, to the common And so when they weep in acting some tragical part, it is as theatrical conflict of men with wild beasts."% though they wept not; and there is more show and appearLet it be farther observed, for the elucidating a very ance, than truth and reality, of grief and sorrow in the case. striking passage in 1 Cor. iv. 9. that in the Roman amphiOn the other hand, if they rejoice in acting some brighter theatre the bestiarii, who in the morning combated with wild scene, it is as though they rejoiced not; it is but a feigned beasts, had armour with which to defend themselves, and to semblance of joy, and forced air of mirth and gayety, which annoy and slay their antagonist. But the last who were they exhibit to the spectators, no real inward gladness of brought upon the stage, which was about noon, were a miheart. If they seem to contract marriages, or act the mer-serable number, quite naked, without any weapons to assail chant, or personate a gentleman of fortune, still it is nothing their adversary-with immediate and inevitable death before but fiction. And so when the play is over, they have no them in all its horrors, and destined to be mangled and wives, no possessions or goods, no enjoyments of the world, butchered in the direst manner. In allusion to this custom, in consequence of such representations. In like manner, by with what sublimity and energy are the apostles représented this apt comparison, the apostle would teach us to moderate to be brought out last upon the stage, as being devoted to our desires and affections towards every thing in this world; certain death, and being made a public spectacle to the and rather, as it were, to personate such things as matters of world, to angels and men! For I think that God hath set a foreign nature, than to incorporate ourselves with them, as | forth us the apostles last, as it were appointed to death: for our own proper and personal concern.! we are made a spectacle to the world, to angels and men. Dr. "The theatre is also furnished with dresses suitable to Whitby's illustration of this distinguished passage is accuevery age, and adapted to every circumstance and change of rate and judicious. "Here the apostle seems to allude to fortune. The persons of the drama, in one and the same the Roman spectacles, THE TWY Sxpicμaxar nas μecroμaxias avsporepresentation, frequently support a variety of characters: vou, that of the bestiarii and the gladiators, where in the the prince and the beggar, the young and the old, change morning men were brought upon the theatre to fight with wild their dress according to the characters in which they respect- beasts, and to them was allowed armour to defend themselves, ively appear, by turns laying aside one habit and assuming and smite the beasts that did assail them: but in the merianother, agreeably to every condition and age.2 The apostle dian spectacle were brought forth the gladiators naked, and Paul seems to allude to this custom, and his expressions re- without any thing to defend them from the sword of the garded in this light have a peculiar beauty and energy, when assailant, and he that then escaped was only reserved for he exhorts Christians to PUT OFF THE OLD MAN with his deeds, slaughter to another day; so that these men might well be and to PUT ON THE NEW MAN. (Coloss. iii. 9, 10. Eph. iv. called Java, men appointed for death; and this being 22, 23, 24.) That ye PUT OFF, concerning the former conver- the last appearance on the theatre for that day, they are said sation, the OLD MAN, which is corrupt according to the deceitful here to be set forth war, the last." lusts and be renewed in the spirit of your minds, and that ye PUT ON THE NEW MAN,3 which after God is created in righteousnees and true holiness. V. But the most splendid and renowned solemnities, which ancient history has transmitted to us, were the Olympic Games. Historians, orators, and poets, abound with references to them, and their sublimest imagery is borrowed from these celebrated exercises. "These games were solemnized every fifth year by an infinite concourse of people from almost all parts of the world. They were celebrated with the greatest pomp and magnificence: hecatombs of victims were slain in honour of the immortal gods; and Elis was a scene of universal festivity and joy. There were other public games instituted, as the Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian; which could also boast of the valour and dexterity of their combatants, and show a splendid list of illustrious names, who had, from time to time, honoured them with their presence. But the lustre of these, though maintained for a series of years, was obscured, and almost totally eclipsed by the Olympic. We find that the most formidable and opulent sovereigns of those times were competitors for "It is, moreover, well known, that in the Roman theatres and amphitheatres, malefactors and criminals were condemned to fight with lions, bears, elephants, and tigers, for which all parts of the Roman dominions were industriously ransacked, to afford this very polite and elegant amusement to this most refined and civilized people. The wretched miscreant was brought upon the stage, regarded with the last ignominy and contempt by the assembled multitudes, made a gazing-stock to the world, as the apostle expresses it; and a wild beast, instigated to madness by the shouts and light missive darts of the spectators, was let loose upon him, to tear and worry him in a miserable manner. To this sanguinary and brutal custom the following expressions of the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews allude. (x. 32, 33.) Ye endured a great fight of afflictions, partly whilst ye were made a gazing-stock, both by reproaches and afflictions. The The same metaphors are of frequent occurrence in the New Testa original is very emphatical; being openly exposed as on a ment. Herod is called a fox; Go and tell that fox. (Luke xii. 32.) Hypopublic theatre to ignominious insults and to the last cruel-crites are called wolves in sheep's clothing. (Matt. vii. 15.) Rapacious and ties. In another passage also, St. Paul, speaking of the There will enter among you grievous wolves, not sparing the flock. (Acts mercenary preachers are styled wolves, that will enter and ravage the fold: determined fierceness and bigotry with which the citizens xx. 29.) The apostle uses a harsher metaphor to denote the malice and of Ephesus opposed him, uses a strong metaphorical expres-rage of his adversaries: Beware of dogs. (Phil. iii. 2.) Had St. Paul been sion taken from the theatre:-If after the manner of men I escaped without a miracle. For those who conquered the beasts were thus engaged, says Dr. Ward, it is difficult to apprehend how he could have have fought with beasts at Ephesus. Not that the apostle afterwards obliged to fight with men till they were killed themselves. It appears to have been actually condemned by his enemies to seems most reasonable, therefore, to understand the expression [xZ] as metaphorical, and that he alludes to the tumult raised by Deme1 Brekell's Discourses, p. 318. trius. He uses the like metaphor, and with respect to the same thing * Είναι γαρ όμοιον τῳ αγαθῷ ὑποκριτή τον σοφον ός αν το Θερσίτου αν τε (1 Cor. iv. 9.), and again (13.), alluding to another custom. As to the expres Ayam A, exclepov vжOxpIvetai poσnnoules. Diogenes sion, Karpov in 1 Cor. xv. 32. the sense seems to be humanitus Laertius, lib. vii. p. 468. edit. Meibomii. 1692. loquendo. Dr. Ward's Dissertations on Scripture, dissert. xlix. pp. 200, 201. The very same word which the apostle here employs to denote the violence and fury of his adversaries is used by Ignatius in the like metaphorical sense, A Eupones Moxp. Pumns CHPIOMAXO Six yng xui Saxons, νυκτός και ημέρας. All the way from Syria to Rome, by sea and by land, by night and by day, do I FIGHT WITH WILD BEASTS. Ignatii Epist. ad Rom. p. 94. edit. Oxon. 1708. Προφυλάσσω δε ύμας από των θηρίων ανθρωπομορφών. Ι advise you to beware of beasts in the shape of men, p. 22. So also the Psalmist, My soul is among lions, even the sons of men, whose teeth are spears and arrows. (Psal. lvii. 4.) Break their teeth, O God, in their mouths. Break out the great teeth of the young lions, O Lord. (Psal. Iviii. 6.) See also Lakemacher's Observationes Sacræ, part ii. pp. 194-196. * Mibi quidem dubium non est quin hæc loquendi ratio ducta sit ab actoibus, qui, habitu mutato, vestibusque depositis, alias partes agunt, aliosque se esse produnt, quam qui in scena esse videbantur. Krebsii Observationes in Nov. Test. p 312. Lipsiæ, 1755. 4 Quodcunque tremendum est Dentibus, aut insigne jubis, aut nobile cornu, Sylvarum, non caule latent, non mole resistunt.-Claudian. • Ονειδισμούς τε και θλίψεσι Θεατριζόμενοι, exposed on a public stage. Dispensatorem ad bestias dedit. Hoc est, seipsum traducere. Id est, says one of the commentators, ludibrio exponere. Petronius Arbiter, p. 220. edit. Burman. 1709. El sulcus. They openly exposed them selves. Polybius, p. 364. Hanov. 1619. Eusebius relates that Attalus, a Christian, was led round the amphitheatre, and exposed to the insults and silence of the multitude. Περισχύεις κυκλῳ του αμφιθεάτρου. Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. v. p. 206. Cantab. Solebant olim gladiatores et bestiarii, antequam certamen obirent per ora populi circumduci. Valesii not. in loc. There is a striking passage in Philo, where, in the same strong metaphori-971, cal imagery the apostle here employs, Flaccus is represented deploring the public ignominy to which he was now reduced. See Philonis Opera, tom. ii. p. 542. edit. Mangey. Matutinarum non ultima præda ferarum. Martial. xiii. 95. Casu in meridianum spectaculum incidi-quicquid ante pugnatum est, misericordia fuit, nunc omissis nugis mera homicidia sunt: nihil habent quo tegantur, ad ictum totis corporibus expositi-non galeâ, non scuto repellitur ferrum. Seneca, tom. ii. epist. vii. pp. 17, 18. edit. Gronov. 1672. Απολλωνία με θηρία ελάχιστα, ανθρωποι δε πολλοί, οι μεν αλλήλοις μαχόμενοι, οι δε και ὑπ' EXPAVO VXOREVO. Dion. Cassius, lib. 1x. p. 951. Reimar. See also pp. 972. ejusdem editionis. See also Beausobre's note on 1 Cor. iv. 9. and Lipsii Saturnalia, tom. vi. p. 951. Josephus, De Bell. Jud. lib. i. cap. 21. § 12. ed. Havercamp. Arriani Epictetus, lib. iii. p. 456. edit. Upton. 1741. the Olympic crown. We see the kings of Macedon,' the | your master, as to a physician. Then, in the combat you tyrants of Sicily, the princes of Asia Minor, and at last the may be thrown into a ditch, dislocate your arm, turn your lords of imperial Rome, and emperors of the world,3 incited ankle, swallow abundance of dust, be whipped, and, after all, by a love of glory, the last infirmity of noble minds, enter lose the victory. When you have reckoned up all this, if their names among the candidates, and contend for the envied your inclination still holds, set about the combat." palm;-judging their felicity completed, and the career of 2. "After this preparatory discipline, on the day appointed all human glory and greatness happily terminated, if they for the celebration, a herald called over their names, recited could but interweave the Olympic garland with the laurels to them the laws of the games, encouraged them to exert all they had purchased in fields of blood. The various games, their powers, and expatiated upon the blessings and advanwhich the Romans celebrated in their capital and in the tages of victory. He then introduced the competitors into principal cities and towns of Italy, with such splendour, the stadium, led them around it, and, with a loud voice, deostentation, and expense, seem to have been instituted in manded if any one in that assembly could charge any of the imitation of the Grecian; though these were greatly inferior candidates with being infamous in his life and morals, or in point of real merit and intrinsic glory: for though the could prove him a slave, a robber, or illegitimate.10 They Romans had the gymnastic exercises of the stadium and the were then conducted to the altar, and a solemn oath exacted chariot-race, yet the mutual slaughter of such numbers of from them, that they would observe the strictest honour in gladiators, the combats with lions, bears, and tigers, though the contention. Afterwards, those who were to engage in the Congenial to the sanguinary ferocity and brutality of these foot-race were brought to the barrier, along which they were people, for no public entertainment could be made agreea- arranged, and waited, in all the excesses of ardour and impable without these scenes, must present spectacles to the tience, for the signal. The cord being dropped, they all at last degree shocking to humanity; for every crown here once sprung forward," fired with the love of glory, conscious won was dipt in blood. that the eyes of all assembled Greece were now upon them, and that the envied palm, if they won it, would secure them the highest honours, and immortalize their memory. It is natural to imagine with what rapidity they would urge their course, and, emulous of glory, stretch every nerve to reach the goal. This is beautifully represented in the following elegant epigram (translated by Mr. West) on Arias of Tarsus, victor in the stadium : 1. "The Olympic exercises principally consisted in running, wrestling, and the chariot-race; for leaping, throwing the dart, and discus, were parts of that they called the Pantathlon. The candidates were to be freemen, and persons of unexcep. tionable morals. A defect in legitimacy or in personal character totally disqualified them. It was indispensably necessary for them previously to submit to a severe regimen. At their own houses they prescribed themselves a particular course of diet; and the laws required them, when they had given in their names to be enrolled in the list of competitors, to resort to Elis, and reside there thirty days before the games commenced; where the regimen and preparatory exercises were regulated and directed by a number of illustrious persons who were appointed every day to superintend them. This form of diet they authoritatively prescribed, and religiously inspected, that the combatants might acquit themselves in the conflict in a manner worthy the Grecian name, worthy the solemnity of the occasion, and worthy those crowds of illustrious spectators by whom they would be surrounded. There are many passages in the Greek and Roman classics which make mention of that extreme strictness, temperance, and continence which the candidates were obliged to observe. The following is a very distinguished passage in Arrian's discourses of Epictetus, which both represents to the reader the severity of this regimen and the arduous nature of the subsequent contention:"Do you wish to conquer at the Olympic games?-But consider what precedes and follows, and then if it be for your advantage, engage in the affair. You must conform to rules; submit to a diet, refrain from dainties, exercise your body whether you choose it or not, in a stated hour, in heat and cold: you must drink no cold water, nor sometimes even wine. In a word, you must give yourself up to 1 Philip. Eadem quoque die nuntium pater ejus [Philippus] daurum victoriarum accepit: alterius, belli Illyrici, alterius, certaminis Olympic, in quod quadrigaruin currus miserat. Justin. lib. xii. cap. 16. p. 359. edit. Gronov. 1719. Cui Alexandro tanta omnium virtutum naturâ ornamenta exstitere, ut etiam Olympio certamine vario ludicrorum genere contenderit. Justin. lib. vii. cap. 2. p. 217. 2 Hiero king of Syracuse. See Pindar's first Olympic ode: his first Pythian ode. Theron king of Agrigentum. See the second and third Olympic odes. The candidates were obliged to undergo an examination of another kind, consisting of the following interrogatories:-1. Were they freemen? 2. Were they Grecians? 3. Were their characters clear from all infamous and immoral stains? West's Dissertation on the Olympic Games, p. 152. edit. 12mo. Arriani Epictetus, lib. iii. p. 456. Upton. Philostratus, de Vità Apollonii, lib. v. cap. 43, p. 227. edit. Olearii. Lipsiæ, 1709. Epictetus, lib iii. c. 15. See also Epicteti Enchriidion. cap. 29. p. 710. edit. Üpton. 66 The speed of Arias, victor in the race, In all these athletic exercises the combatants contended naked ;12 for though, at first, they wore a scarf round the waist, yet an unfortunate casualty once happening, when this disengaging itself, and entangling round the feet, threw the person down, and proved the unhappy occasion of his losing the victory, it was, after this accident, adjudged to be laid aside.'s 3. Chaplets composed of the sprigs of a wild olive,11 and branches of palm, were publicly placed on a tripod in the middle of the stadium,15 full in the view of the competitors, to inflame them with all the ardour of contention, and all the spirit of the most generous emulation. Near the goal was erected a tribunal, on which sat the presidents of the games, called Hellanodics, personages venerable for their years and characters, who were the sovereign arbiters and judges of these arduous contentions, the impartial witnesses of the respective merit and pretensions of each combatant, and with the strictest justice conferred the crown. 4. "It is pleasing and instructive to observe, how the several particulars here specified concerning these celebrated solemnities, which were held in the highest renown and glory in the days of the apostles, explain and illustrate various passages in their writings, the beauty, energy, and sublimity of which consist in the metaphorical allusions to these games, from the various gymnastic exercises of which their elegant and impressive imagery is borrowed. Thus the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (an epistle which, in point of composition, may vie with the most pure and elaborate of the Greek classics) says, Wherefore seeing we also are compassed about with so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every 12 Thucydides, lib. i. § 6. tom. i. pp. 16, 17. ed. Glasg. 13 In the xivth Olympiad, one Orsippus, a racer, happened to be thrown down by his scarf tangling about his feet, and was killed; though others say that he only lost the victory by that fall; but whichever way it was, occa. sion was taken from thence to make a law, that all the athletes for the future should contend naked. West's Dissertation, p. 66. 12ino. 14 Το γέρας εστιν ουκ άργυρος, ουδέ χρυσος, ου μην ουδέ κοτινού στέφανός η VOU. Josephus contra Apion. lib. ii. § 30. p. 488. Havercamp. Strabo, in his geographical description of the Elian territories, mentions a grove of wild olives. Έστι δ' άλσος αγριελαίων πληρες. Strabo, lib. viii. p. 343. edit. Paris, 1620. Probably from this grove the Olympic crowns were com posed. To excite the emulation of the competitors, by placing in their view the object of their ambition, these crowns were laid upon a tripod or table, which during the games was brought out and placed in the middle of the stadium. West's Dissertation, p. 174. 12mo. weight, and the sin which doth so easily beset us, and let us run with patience the race that is set before us; looking unto Jesus, the author and finisher of our faith, who for the joy that was set before him, endured the cross, despising the shame, and is set down at the right hand of the majesty on high. For consider him that endureth such contradiction of sinners against himself, lest you be wearied and faint in your minds. Wherefore lift up the hands that hang down, and the feeble knees; and make straight paths for your feet, lest that which is lame be turned out of the way. (Heb. xii. 1-3. 12, 13.) In allusion to that prodigious assembly, from all parts of the world,' which was convened at Olympia to be spectators of those celebrated games, the apostle places the Christian combatant in the midst of a most august and magnificent theatre, composed of all those great and illustrious characters, whom in the preceding chapter he had enumerated, the fancied presence of whom should fire him with a virtuous ambition, and animate him with unconquered ardour to run the race that was set before him. Wherefore seeing we are compassed about with such a cloud of witnesses :2 whose eyes are upon us, who expect every thing from the preparatory discipline we have received, and who long to applaud and congratulate us upon our victory: let us lay aside every weight, and the sin that doth so easily beset us; let us throw off every impediment, as the competitors for the Olympic crown did, and that sin that would entangle and impede our steps, and prove the fatal cause of our losing the victory; and let us run with patience the race set before us; like those who ran in the Grecian stadium, let us, inflamed with the idea of glory, honour, and immortality, urge our course with unremitting ardour toward the destined happy goal for the prize of our high calling in God our Saviour, looking unto Jesus the author and finisher of our faith: as the candidates for the Olympic honours, during the arduous contention, had in view those illustrious and venerable personages from whose hands they were to receive the envied palm, and who were immediate witnesses of their respective conduct and merit; in imitation of them, let us Christians keep our eyes steadfastly fixed upon Jesus the original introducer and perfecter of our religion, who, if we are victorious, will rejoice to adorn our temples with a crown of glory that will never fade; who, for the joy set before him, endured the cross, despising the shame, and is now set down at the right hand of God: Jesus himself, to seize the glorious palm which his God and Father placed full in his view in order to inspirit him with ardour and alacrity, in the race he had set before him, cheerfully submitted to sorrows and sufferings, endured the cross, contemning the infamy of such a death, and, in consequence of perseverance and victory, is now exalted to the highest honours, and placed on the right hand of the Supreme Majesty. For, consider him that endureth such contradiction of sinners against himself, lest ye be wearied and faint in your minds, consider him who conflicted with such opposition of wicked men all confederated against him, and let reflections on his fortitude prevent your being languid and dispirited; therefore lift up the hands which hang down, and the feeble knees. And make straight paths for your feet, lest Not merely the inhabitants of Athens, of Lacedæmon, and of Nicopolis, but the inhabitants of the whole world are convened to be spectators of the Olympic exercises. Arriani Epictetus, lib. iii. p. 456. Upton. i Nieos xpтupes. A cloud of witnesses. This form of expression occurs in the politest writers. See Iliad, x. 133. Eneid, vii. 793. Andron. dii Argonauticon, iv. 398. Appian, Pisc. i. 463. and Euripidis Hecuba, ver. 907. that which is lame be turned out of the way: exert in the Christian race those nerves that have been relaxed, and collect those spirits which have been sunk in dejection: make a smooth and even path for your steps, and remove every thing that would obstruct and retard your velocity. "The following distinguished passage in St. Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians (ix. 24-27.) abounds with agonistical terms. Its beautiful and striking imagery is totally borrowed from the Greek stadium. Know ye not that they who run in a race, run all, but one receiveth the prize? So run, that ye may obtain. And every man that Now they striveth for the mastery, is temperate in all things. do it to obtain a corruptible crown; but we an incorruptible. I therefore so run, not as uncertainly; so fight I, not as one that beateth the air: but I keep under my body, and bring it into subjection; lest that by any means, when I have preached the Gospel to others, I myself should be a cast-away know you not that in the Grecian stadium great numbers run with the utmost contention to secure the prize, but that only one person wins and receives? With the same ardour and perseverance do you run, that you may seize the garland of celestial glory. Every one, also, who enters the list as a combatant, submits to a very rigid and severe regimen.8 They do this to gain a fading chaplet, that is only composed of the decaying leaves of a wild olive, but in our view is hung up the unfading wreath of immortality.10 With this in full prospect I run the Christian race, not distressed with wretched uncertainty concerning its final issue." I engage as a combatant, but deal not my blows in empty air.12 But I inure my body to the severest discipline, and bring all its appetites into subjection: lest, when I have proclaimed 13 the glorious prize to others, I should, at last, be rejected as unworthy14 to obtain it. This representation of the Christian race must make a strong impression upon the minds of the Corinthians, as they were so often spectators of those games, which were celebrated on the Isthmus, upon which their city was situated. It is very properly introduced with, KNOW YOU NOT; for every citizen in Corinth was acquainted with every minute circumstance of this most splendid and pompous solemnity. St. Paul, in like manner, in his second Epistle to Timothy (ii. 5.), observes, that if a man strive for mastery, yet is he not crowned unless he strive lawfully he who contends in the Grecian games secures not the crown, unless he strictly conform to the rules prescribed. "What has been observed concerning the spirit and ardour with which the competitors engaged in the race, and concerning the prize they had in view to reward their arduous contention, will illustrate the following sublime passage of the same sacred writer in his Epistle to the Philippians (iii. 12-14.):-Not as though I had already attained, either were already perfect; but I follow after, if 8 Πας δε δ αγωνιζόμενος πάντα εγκρατεύεται, We have already noticed how rigid and severe this regimen was, and what temperance and conti nence (expars] those who entered their names in the list of combatants were previously obliged to observe. Multa tulit fecitque puer, sudavit et alsit: abstinuit venere et vino, says Horace. See Eliani, Var. Hist. lib. xi. cap. 3. p. 684. Gronovii Lug. Bat. 1731, and Plato de Legibus, lib. viii. pp. 139, 140. edit. Serrani, 1578, and Eustathius ad Hom. Iliad . p. 1472. 9 Φθαρτον στέφανον. The chaplet that was bestowed on the victor in the Olympic games was made of wild olive, the crowns in the Isthmian games were composed of parsley. These chaplets were fading and transitory. Δίδους και τοις θυμελικοίς στεφάνου μεν ου χρυσους, αλλ' ώσπερ εν ολυμπία, κοτινών. Plutarch. Cato, jun. p. 1433. edit. Gr. Steph. 8vo. See also Por Rho-phyrius de Antro Nympharum, p. 240. edit. Cantab. 1655. Philonis Opera, tom. ii. p. 463. edit. Mangey. Tous yap Te lo Sμia vixwvτas of Kopi σελινων στεφανουσιν. Those who conquer in the Isthmian games the Corin thians crown with parsley. Polyæni Stratag. lib. v. p. 376. edit. Casaubon. 10 Hus, aprov. With what ardour in the Christian race this glorious crown should inspire us is well represented by Irenæus. Bonus igitur agonista ad incorruptelæ agonem adhortatur nos, uti coronemur, et preciosam arbitremur coronam, videlicet quæ per agonem nobis acquiritur, sed non ultro coalitat. Et quantò per agonem nobis advenit, tantò est preciosior: quantò autem preciosior, tantò eam semper diligamus. Irenæus, lib. iv. p. 377. edit. Grab. The folly also of Christians in being negligent and ous constancy and virtue, is also beautifully exposed by Justin Martyr. See his Apol. ii. p. 78. edit. Paris. 1636. 3 Ογκου αποθέμενοι παντα. A stadio sumpta similitudo: ibi qui cursuri sunt, omnia quæ oneri esse possunt, deponunt. Grot. in loc. Monet ut yx abjiciamus, quo vocabulo crassa omnis et tarda moles significatur. Beza. 1589. EUTEpilatov. Entangled by wrapping round. An allusion to the garments of the Greeks which were long, and would entangle and impede their steps, if not thrown off in the race. See Hallet, in loc. • Προκειμένης αυτώ χαράς. The joy placed full in his view. In the Olympic exercises the prize was publicly placed in the view of the combatants to fire their emulation. The following note of Krebsius is very elegant-remiss, when an incorruptible crown awaits their persevering and victoriElegantissima metaphora est vocis pos, e veterum certaminum ratione ducta. Proprie enim pexesos dicuntur Taxa, sc. præmia certaminis, quæ publicè proponuntur in propatulo, ut eorum aspectus, certaque, eorum adipiscendorum spes, certaturos alacriores redderet ad certamen ineundum, victoriamque reportandam. J. Tob. Krebsii Observat. in N. T. e Joseph. p. 377. Lips. 1755. Svo. • Ivzanxakati, TRIS JUXRIS UMWD EXμ. Hæc duo verba a palæstra et ab athletis desumpta sunt, qui proprie dicuntur xviv et uxxis Exkur, cum corporis viribus debilitati et fracti, omnique spe vincendi abjectâ, victas manus dant adversario- -Neque dubium est quin apostolus eo respexerit. Krebsius, p. 390. - Δια της παρειμένας χειρας και τα παραλελυμένα γόνατα ανορθώσατε. Quemadmodum Paulus sæpissime delectatur loquendi formulis ex re palæstrica petitis; ita dubium non est, quin hic quoque respexisse eo videa. tur. Athletis enim et luctatoribus tribuntur psimavar xiipis et apaλsku* vara, cum luctando ita defatigati, viribusque fracti sunt, ut neque manus neque pedes officio suo fungi possint, ipsique adeo victos se esse fateri cogantur. Krebsius, p. 392. 11 So we understand oux aðλws. Mr. West renders it, in the illustration he has given us of this passage; I so run, as not to pass undistinguished; and then adds the following note: ', oux unws, may also signify in this place, as if I was unseen, not unobserved, i. e. as if I was in the presence of the judge of the games, and a great number of spectators. West's Dissertation, p. 253. 12mo. 19 Οὕτω πυκτεύω, ώς ουκ αέρα δέρων. This circumstance is often mentioned in describing the engagements of combatants; thus, Virgil has, Entellus vires in venturn effudit. Eneid. v. 443. Vacuas agit ipconsulta per auras Brachia. Valerius Flaccus, iv. 302, τρις δ' μερα τυψε βαθείαν. Dind, Υ. 446. See also Oppian. Piscat. lib. ii. ver. 450. Rittershus. Lug. Bat. 1597. 13 Axλ015 kupuĝes; proclaimed, as a herald, the prize to others. A herald, xиpuž, made proclamation at the games what rewards would be bestowed on the conquerors. 14 Αδόκιμος γένωμαι. Be disapproved; be rejected as unworthy; come off without honour and approbation. that I may apprehend that for which also I am apprehended | prize before me, pressing with eager and rapid steps, towards of Christ Jesus. Brethren, I count not myself to have appre- the goal, to seize the immortal palm which God, by Christ hended: but this one thing I do, forgetting those things which Jesus, bestows. This affecting passage, also, of the same are behind, and reaching forth unto those things which are apostle, in the second Epistle of Timothy, written a little before, I press towards the mark, for the prize of the high before his martyrdom, is beautifully allusive to the abovecalling of God in Christ Jesus: Not that already I have mentioned race, to the crown that awaited the victory, and acquired this palm; not that I have already attained per- to the Hellanodics or judges who bestowed it:-I have fection; but I pursue my course, that I may seize that crown fought a good fight, I have finished my course,2 I have kept of immortality, to the hope of which I was raised by the the faith. Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of rightgracious appointment of Christ Jesus. My Christian breth-eousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, shall give me at ren, I do not esteem myself to have obtained this glorious that day and not to me only, but to all them also that lov prize but one thing occupies my whole attention; forget- his appearing." (2 Tim. iv. 7, 8.) ting what I left behind, I stretch every nerve towards the CHAPTER IX. ON THE DISEASES MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES, TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, AND FUNERAL RITES. SECTION I. ON THE DISEASES MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. Origin and Progress of the Art of Medicine in the East.-II. Notice of Remedies in use among the Jews.-M. Account of some particular Diseases mentioned in the Scriptures; viz. 1. The Leprosy ;-2. Elephantiasis, the Disease of Job;— 3. Disease of the Philistines;-4. Of King Saul;—5. Of King Jehoram;—6. Of King Hezekiah;-7. Of Nebuchadnezzar; -8. Palsy ;-9. Issue of Blood;-10. Blindness ;-11. The Reality of demoniacal Possessions proved. are mentioned first in Gen. 1. 2. Exod. xxi. 19. Job xiii. 4. Some acquaintance with chirurgical operations is implied in the rite of circumcision. (Gen. xvii. 11—14.) There is ample evidence that the Israelites had some acquaintance with the internal structure of the human system, although it does not appear that dissections of the human body, for medical purposes, were made till as late as the time of Ptolemy. That physicians sometimes undertook to exercise their skill, in removing diseases of an internal nature, is evident from the circumstance of David's playing upon the harp to cure the malady of Saul. (1 Sam. xvi. 16.) The art of healing was committed among the Hebrews, as well as among the Egyptians, to the priests; who, indeed, were obliged, by a law of the state, to take cognizance of leprosies. (Lev. xiii. 1-14. 57. Deut. xxiv. 8, 9.) Reference is made to physicians who were not priests, and to instances of sickness, disease, healing, &c. in the following passages; viz. 1 Sam. I. THE diseases to which the human frame is subject would | from producing the effects he ascribes to them. Physicians naturally lead men to try to alleviate or to remove them hence sprang the ART OF MEDICINE. In the early ages of the world, indeed, there could not be much occasion for an art which is now so necessary to the health and happiness of mankind. The simplicity of their manners, the plainness of their diet, their temperance in meat and drink, and their active life (being generally occupied in the field, and in rural affairs), would naturally tend to strengthen the body, and to afford a greater share of health than what we now enjoy. So long as our first parents continued in that state of uprightness in which they were created, there was a tree, emphatically termed the tree of life, the fruit of which was divinely appointed for the preservation of health; but after the fall, being expelled from Eden, and, consequently, banished for ever from that tree, they became liable to various diseases, which, doubtless, they would endeavour to remove, or to mitigate in various ways. From the longevity of the patriarchs it is evident that diseases were not very frequent in the early ages of the world, and they seem to have enjoyed a sufficiently vigorous old age, except that the eyes became dim and the sight feeble. (Gen. xxvii. 1. xlviii. 10.) Hence it is recorded as a remarkable circumstance concerning Moses, that in extreme old age (for he was an hundred and twenty years old when he died) his eye was NOT dim, nor his natural force abated. (Deut. xxxiv. 7.) The Jews ascribed the origin of the healing art to God himself (Ecclus. xxxviii. 1, 2.), and the Egyptians attributed the invention of it to their god Thaut or Hermes,or to Osiris or Isis. Anciently, at Babylon, the sick, when they were first attacked by a disease, were left in the streets, for the purpose of learning from those who might pass them what practices or what medicines had been of assistance to them, when afflicted with a similar disease. This was, perhaps, done also in other countries. The Egyptians carried their sick into the temple of Serapis; the Greeks carried theirs into those of Esculapius. In both of these temples there were preserved written receipts of the means by which various cures had been effected. With the aid of these recorded remedies, the art of healing assumed in the progress of time the aspect of a science. It assumed such a form, first in Egypt, and at a much more recent period in Greece; but it was not long before those of the former were surpassed in excellence by the physicians of the latter country. That the Egyptians, however, had no little skill in medicine, may be gathered from what is said in the Pentateuch respecting the marks of leprosy. That some of the medical prescriptions should fail of bringing the expected relief is by no means strange, since Pliny himself mentions some which are far 1 Τα μεν οπίσω επιλανθανόμενος, τοις δε εμπροσθεν επεκτεινόμενος, επι Ως δε ποδωκενης μεμελημένοι άνδρες αεθλων, Oppian Pisc. lib. iv. ver. 101. edit. Rittershusik Instat equis auriga suos vincentibus, illum |