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are called second tithes. The Levites paid a tenth of the tithes they received to the priests. Lastly, there were tithes allotted to the poor, for whom there was also a corner left in every field, which it was not lawful to reap with the rest (Lev. xix. 9. Deut. xxiv. 19.); and they were likewise allowed such ears of corn, or grapes, as were dropped or scattered about, and the sheaves that might be accidentally forgotten in the field. Field-tithes might be redeemed by those who desired it, on paying one-fifth in addition: but all conversion of the tithes of cattle was prohibited. (Lev. xxvii. 32, 33.) The payment and appreciation of them Moses left to the consciences of the people, without subjecting them to judicial or sacerdotal visitations, but at the same time he did not prohibit the Levites from taking care that they duly received what was their own. The conscientious accuracy of the people, with respect to the second tithe, he secured merely by the declaration which they made every three years before God. From trifling articles he in no case required tithes; though we learn from the Gospel that the Pharisees affected to be scrupulously exact in paying tithes of every the least herb. (Matt. xxiii. 23.) If, however, a person had committed a trespass against the sanctuary, that is, had not paid the tithes of any particular things, and if, at any time afterwards, his conscience were awakened to a sense of his guilt, he had it in his power to make an atonement, without incurring any civil disgrace, by simply paying an additional fifth, with his tithe, and making a trespass-offering. (Lev. v. 14—16.)

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The custom of giving tithes to the Deity existed long before the time of Moses. Thus Abraham gave to Melchisedek king of Salem (who was at the same time the priest of the Most High God) the tithe of all that he had taken from the enemy, when he returned from his expedition against the four kings who were in alliance with Chedorlaomer. (Gen. xiv. 20.) And Jacob consecrated to God the tenth of all that he should acquire in Mesopotamia. (Gen. xxviii. 22.) The same custom obtained among various ancient nations, who devoted to their gods the tenth part of every thing they obtained.

Deut. xxvi. 2. Neh. x. 35, 36.);1 and the first-fruits of corn, wine, oil, and sheep's wool were offered for the use of the Levites. (Deut. xviii. 4.) The amount of this gift is not specified in the law of Moses, which leaves it entirely to the pleasure of the giver: the Talmudical writers, however, inform us, that liberal persons were accustomed to give the fortieth, and even the thirtieth; while such as were covetous or penurious gave only a sixtieth part. The first of these they called an oblation with a good eye, and the second an oblation with an evil eye. To this traditional saying our Lord is, by some learned men, supposed to have alluded in Matt. xx. 15. Among animals, the males only belong to God; and the Jews not only had a right, but were even obliged, to redeem them in the case of men and unclean animals, which | could not be offered in sacrifice. These first-fruits were offered from the feast of pentecost until that of dedication, because after that time the fruits were neither so beautiful nor so good as before. Further, the Jews were prohibited from gathering in the harvest until they had offered to God the omer, that is, the new sheaf, which was presented the day after the great day of unleavened bread: neither were they allowed to bake any bread made of new corn until they had offered the new loaves upon the altar on the day of pentecost; without which all the corn was regarded as unclean and unholy. To this St. Paul alludes in Rom. xi. 16.; where he says, If the FIRST-FRUIT be holy, the lump also is holy. The presentation of the first-fruits was a solemn and festive ceremony. At the beginning of harvest, the sanhedrin deputed a number of priests to go into the fields and reap a handful of the first ripe corn; and these, attended by great crowds of people, went out of one of the gates of Jerusalem into the neighbouring corn-fields. The first-fruits thus reaped were carried with great pomp and universal rejoicing through the streets of Jerusalem to the temple. The Jewish writers say that an ox preceded them with gilded horns and an olive crown upon his head, and that a pipe played before them until they approached the city: on entering it they crowned the first-fruits, that is, exposed them to sight with as much pomp as they could, and the chief officers of the temple went out to meet them. They were then devoutly offered to God in grateful acknowledgment of his providential goodness in giving them the fruits of the earth. "These first-fruits, or handful of the first ripe grain, gave notice to all who beheld them that the general harvest would soon be gathered in. How beautiful and striking is St. Paul's allusion to this religious ceremony in that most consolatory and closely reasoned chapter, the fifteenth of his first Epistle to the Corinthians, in which, from the resurrection of Jesus Christ, he argues and establishes the certainty of the general "When the practice of sacrificing was first appointed, the resurrection; and represents Christ as the first-fruits of a use of letters was probably unknown: consequently, the glorious and universal harvest of all the sleeping dead! Now mode of instruction by visible emblems or symbols was both is Christ risen, and become the FIRST-FRUITS of them that slept." indispensable and highly beneficial. In such a state of (1 Cor. xv. 20.) The use which the apostle makes of this things, the offering of animal victims was made to answer image is very extensive. "In the first place, the growing for that more simple and rational devotion, which words are of grain from the earth where it was buried is an exact image now happily fitted to express. When we consider sacrifices, of the resurrection of the body; for, as the one is sown, so is with all their attendant rites, as appointed by God in order the other, and neither is quickened except it first die and be to assist the religious instruction, improvement, and consolaburied. Then the whole harvest, from its relation to the first-tion of man, we must conclude that the Most High would, fruits, explains and ensures the order of our resurrection. in the first instance, clearly explain every part of this instiFor, is the sheaf of the first-fruits reaped? then is the whole tution; otherwise it could not answer its proposed ends. harvest ready. Is Christ risen from the dead? then shall all Now, if the moral import of sacrifices were thus explained, rise in like manner. Is he accepted of God as a holy offer- the utility of them to mankind in their rude and simple state ing? then shall every sheaf that has grown up with him be is beyond calculation. In untutored man, reason is weak, taken from the earth and sanctified in its proper order :- the mental feelings are heavy and rough, while sense, imagiChrist, the FIRST-FRUITS, and afterwards they that are Christ's nation, and passion are the leading avenues both to the unat his coming.2 (1 Cor. xv. 23.) derstanding and heart. To man thus situated, the appointment of sacrifices is peculiarly adapted for these convey a most pathetic and awful address to his very senses, and thus rouse him to the most serious and impressive reflections. The frequent spectacles of bleeding and smoking victims, suffering and atoning for the guilty offerers, would give them the deepest impressions of the purity, justice, and majesty of God, of the evil of transgressions, of their own ill desert, and of the necessity of some adequate atonement, and of the readiness of the Deity to pardon the penitent. The nume rous and diversified offerings of the ancient Jews, with the striking pomp which preceded and attended them, were fitted not only to excite and express the most reverential, humble, and grateful devotion; but also to give the best direction to the whole temper and conduct. The many washings and

(2.) Besides the first-fruits, the Jews also paid the Tenths or Tithes of all they possessed. (Num. xviii. 21.) They were in general collected of all the produce of the earth (Lev. xxvii. 30. Deut. xiv. 22, 23. Neh. xiii. 5. 10.), but chiefly of corn, wine, and oil, and were rendered every year except the sabbatical year. When these tithes were paid, the owner of the fruits further gave another tenth part, which was carried up to Jerusalem, and eaten in the temple at offering feasts, as a sign of rejoicing and gratitude to God. These

From the Jewish custom of offering first-fruits to Jehovah, the hea thens borrowed a similar rite. See Pliny, Nat. Hist. lib. xviii. c. 2. Horace, 2 Jones's Works, vol. iii. p. 64. Harwood's Introd. to the New Test. vol. ii. p. 307. Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 146-149. Beausobre's Introd. to the New Test. (vol. iii. p. 200. of Bishop Watson's Collection of Tracts.) Dr. Lightfoot's Works, vol. i. p. 981. vol. ii. pp. 184. 306, 307. folio edit. Lamy's Apparatus, vol. i. p. 204. Ikenii Antiq. Hebr. part i. c. 15. pp. 210-224. Schulzii Archæol. Hebr. pp. 287-292. Lamy's Apparatus Biblicus, vol. i. pp. 203-206.

Sat. lib. ii. Sat. v. 12. Tibullus, Eleg. lib. i. El. i. 13.

VI. From the preceding sketch of the Jewish Sacrifices, we may strongly infer their FITNESS AND UTILITY. According to the refined ideas of modern times animal sacrifices are a very absurd and savage mode of expressing and promoting devout sentiments and dispositions. But, if we steadily keep in view the genius and habits of ancient nations, and the special circumstances of the Hebrews, these objections will vanish; and the propriety as well as expediency of the Jewish institutions will forcibly appear.

On the application of these second tithes, see Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 142, 143. Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 141-145.

purifications, enjoined previous to the oblation of sacrifice, ing, a perfect sacrifice for the sins of the world. In a word, were not only physically beneficial in the eastern countries, the religion of the Jews and that of Christians form one but directly tended to impress a simple people with a scru- great and harmonious plan. The Jews saw gospel-truth in pulous regard to inward and moral purity, especially in all its early and gradual dawn; we behold in it its meridian their approaches to the Deity. That this was the primary splendour. When Christ appeared, the candid and pious intention of these ceremonies, was a maxim frequently and Jews embraced him; because they saw in him a glorious solemnly enforced. In those early ages, the language of counterpart, a perfect accomplishment of their ancient rites these well-chosen emblems could not fail to be well under- and predictions. The Gentiles, on the other hand, were led stood and strongly felt. Above all, the frequent sacrifices of to venerate and believe in the Hebrew Law; because they the Jewish law were intended to prefigure, and gradually to beheld in it an exact, though imperfect figure and prophecy prepare men for the great atoning sacrifice of the promised of the Gospel. What beauty and glory do these observaMessiah." Accordingly, "our Saviour, in allusion to those tions reflect both on the Jewish and Christian dispensations! ancient oblations, is called by way of eminence a sin-offer- What admirable depth of wisdom do they discover in both!"'!

CHAPTER IV.

SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS OBSERVED BY THE JEWS.

L. THE SABBATH.-1. How observed.-2. Jewish Worship on that Day; particularly their Manner of worshipping in the Temple.-II. NEW MOONS.-III. Annual Festivals.-Their important Design.-IV. THE PASSOVER; when celebrated, and with what Ceremonies; its mystical or typical Reference.-V. THE DAY OF PENTECOST.-VI. THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES. -VII. Other annual Festivals.-1. THE FEAST OF TRUMPETS.-2. THE DAY OF EXPIATION.-VIII. Annual Festivals instituted by the Jews in later Times.-1. THE FEAST OF PURIM. 2. THE FEAST OF DEDICATION.-IX. Other Festivals observed at stated Intervals.—1. THE SABBATICAL YEAR.-2. THE YEAR OF JUBILEE.

In order to perpetuate the memory of the numerous wonders God had wrought in favour of his people, Moses, by the Divine command, instituted various festivals, which they were obliged to observe: these sacred seasons were either weekly, monthly, or annual, or recurred after a certain number of years.

I. Every seventh day was appropriated to sacred repose, and called the SABBATH; although this name is in some passages given to other festivals, as in Lev. xxv. 4., and sometimes it denotes a week, as in Matt. xxviii. 1. Luke xxiv. 1. Acts xx. 7. and 1 Cor. xvi. 2. (Gr.) It was originally instituted to preserve the memory of the creation of the world (Gen. ii. 3.); whether it continued to be observed by the Israelites as a day of rest and holy convocation during their residence in Egypt, is a question concerning which learned men are no means agreed. When, however, God gave them rest in the land of Canaan, he gave them his Sabbaths to be statedly kept (Exod. xx. 10, 11. and xvi. 23.); and its observance was specially enjoined on the Israelites in Deut. v. 15., because they were the redeemed people of God, and they were to make the Sabbath a day of peculiar recognition of their deliverance from bondage.3

1. In the observance of the Sabbath, the following circumstances were enjoined by divine command:-(1.) This day was to be held sacred as a day of worship, in memory of the creation of the world by Jehovah, and also of the deliverance of the Jews from Egyptian bondage, as well as a day of repose both for man and beast, that they might be refreshed, and not have their bodily strength exhausted by uninterrupted labour (Gen. ii. 1-3. Deut. v. 13. Exod. xx. 10, 11. Ezek. IX. 20.); hence the celebration of the Sabbath was the making of a weekly profession that they received and revered the Creator of heaven and earth, and was closely connected with the fundamental principle of the Mosaic law, whose object was to keep the people from idolatry, and to maintain the worship of the one true God; and hence, also, the punishment of death was denounced against the wilful profanation of this solemnity. (2.) On this day they were most religiously to abstain from all manner of work. (Exod. xx. 10. xxiii. 12. xxxi. 12—17. xxxv. 2. Deut. v. 14, 15. Jer. xvii. 22.) It was, therefore, unlawful to gather manna (Exod. xvi. 22-30.), to light a fire for culinary purposes (Exod. xxxv. 3. Num. xv. 32-36.), and to sow or reap. (Exod. xxxiv. 21.) To these enactments the Jewish doctors added a variety of other regulations, for which there is not the slightest foundation in the law of Moses. Thus, it was formerly accounted unlawful to repel force by force on the

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Sabbath-day; and how much its observance was strained by the traditions of the elders in the time of our Lord, is sufficiently manifest. Hence, we find it was deemed unlawful to pluck ears of corn (Matt. xii. 2.) to satisfy the cravings of nature, because that was a species of reaping. We learn from the Talmudical writers that it was unlawful to use oil medicinally, though they allowed it as a luxury; the anointing of the body with fragrant oils being then, as it is now, in the East, one of their highest enjoyments. It was a traditional rule of the ancient Jewish doctors that "whatever could possibly be done on the day before, or might be deferred until the following day, ought not to drive out the Sabbath ;" an excellent maxim when rightly understood, but when applied to cases of infirmity or sickness, they manifestly showed that they did not comprehend the meaning of the divine declaration-I will have mercy and not sacrifice. In chronical diseases, therefore, of which description were those cured by Jesus Christ on the Sabbath-day, they conceived that the persons who had so long struggled with them might very well bear them a day longer, rather than prepare medicines or in any way attempt to be cured on that day. The knowledge of this circumstance will greatly illustrate the conduct of our Lord in healing the sick on the Sabbath-day, and particularly the man who had been born blind. (John ix.) The rule above stated was made before he began to teach, and he gladly availed himself of the first opportunity to refute their erroneous notions, and expose their gross prevarication in interpreting many of the sabbatical laws. Further, seeing it was prohibited to put fasting spittle upon or into the eyes of a blind man on the Sabbath-day, our Saviour effected a cure by using both clay and spittle (John ix. 6. 14.), to show his dívine authority, in employing means to human reason the most improper, even on that sacred day, directly in opposition to the above rule; which was good and just in itself, but hypocritical, superstitious, and cruel, when applied to the case of healing on the Sabbath. The services of the temple, however, might be performed without profaning the Sabbath, such as preparing the sacrifices (Lev. vi. 8-13. Num. xxviii. 3-10. Matt. xii. 5.); and it was also lawful to perform circumcision on that day. (John vii. 23.) (3.) The Sabbath was to be devoted to cheerful rest, that not only the Israelites, but also strangers living with them, as well as their cattle, might be refreshed. (Exod. xxiii. 12.) Hence, it is not improbable, that they celebrated sacrificial or offering feasts, to which, from the commencement of their polity, the poor were invited. In later times, at least, we know from history, that the Jews purchased and prepared the best viands they could procure

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1 Macc. ii. 31-38. See other examples in Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xii. c. 6. § 2. De Bell. Jud. lib. ii. c. 16. §4. lib. iv. c. 2. $3. and de vitâ suà, § 32. Dr. Wotton's Misna, title Shabbath, pp. 101-103. 123. The Sabbath, we may observe, was a type of that eternal rest, which all the true servants of God will hereafter enjoy in heaven. See Jones's Lectures on the Epistle to the Hebrews, lect. ii. (Works, vol. iii. pp. 240-242.)

for the Sabbath-day, in order to do it honour; and that they actually had Sabbath-feasts, to which they even invited persons with whom they were unacquainted.i

The Sabbath commenced at sunset, and closed at the same time on the following day. (Matt. viii. 16. Mark i. 32.) Whatever was necessary was prepared on the latter part of the preceding day, that is, of our Friday: hence, the day preceding the Sabbath (pv) is in the New Testament termed the preparation (rapan), in Matt. xxvii. 62. Mark xv. 42. Luke xxiii. 54. and John xix. 14. 31. 42.o

2. We know not with certainty from the Mosaic writings what constituted the most ancient worship of the Israelites on the Sabbath-day. It is however, evident from the New Testament, that the celebration of this day chiefly consisted in the religious exercises which were then performed: though there is no injunction recorded, except that a burnt-offering of two lambs should on that day be added to the morning and evening sacrifices (Num. xxviii. 9.); and that the shewbread should be changed. (Lev. xxiv. 8.) In the synagogues' the Sacred Writings were read and expounded, to which was sometimes added a discourse or sermon by some doctor or eminent teacher. (Luke iv. 16. Acts xiii. 15.) Prayer also appears to have formed a part of their sacred worship in the synagogue, and especially in the temple. (1 Sam. i. 9, 10. 1 Kings viii. 29, 30. 33. Psal. xxvii. 2. Luke xviii. 10. Acts ii. 15. and iii. 1.)

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he might on no account sit down either in the Israelites' or priests' court: no person whatever being allowed that privilege, except the kings of the house of David.—(6.) Having offered their prayers, and performed the services, they were to depart in the same order in which they had entered: and as they were prohibited to turn their backs upon the altar, they went backward till they were out of the court, and departed from the temple by a different gate from that by which they had entered.

II. The Jewish months being lunar were originally calculated from the first appearance of the moon, on which the FEAST OF THE NEW Moon, or the beginning of the month (as the Hebrews termed it), was celebrated. (Exod. xii. 2. Num. x. 10. xxviii. 11. Isa. i. 13, 14.) It seems to have been in use long before the time of Moses, who by the divine command prescribed what ceremonies were then to be observed. It was proclaimed by the sound of trumpets (Num. x. 10. Psal. lxxxi. 3.); and several additional sacrifices were offered. (Num. xxviii. 11-15.)

III. Besides the Sabbath, Moses instituted three ANNUAL Festivals, viz. the passover, the feast of pentecost, and the feast of tabernacles: these, which are usually denominated the Great Festivals, were distinguished from the Sabbath, and indeed from all other holy days, by the circumstance of two of them lasting seven, and one for eight, successive days; during which the Jews were bound to rejoice before the Lord With what reverence the Jews regarded their temple, we for all their deliverances and mercies. (Deut. xvi. 11—15.) have already seen and in proportion to the sanctity of the All the males of the twelve tribes were bound to be present place was the solemn and holy behaviour required of all at these grand festivals (Exod. xxxiv. 23. Deut. xví. 16.); who came to worship there. The law, indeed, had prohi- and for their encouragement to attend they were assured that bited the approach of all uncleanness; but to the enactments no man should desire their land during their absence (Exod. of Moses the great masters of traditions added a variety of xxxiv. 24.): in other words, that they should be secure from other trifling regulations, which the law had not named, hostile invasion during their attendance on religious worship: while they scruple not to make the "house of prayer" a dena manifest proof this of the divine origin of their religion, of thieves. Dr. Lightfoot has collected many of these tra- as well as of the power and particular providence of God ditions respecting the temple worship; an abridgment of in working thrice every year an especial miracle for the prowhich will form a proper supplement to the preceding obser- tection of his people; for it is a well known fact, that the Jews constantly attended these ceremonies without any fear of danger, and that their most vigilant enemies never invaded or injured them during these sacred seasons. The design of these meetings was partly to unite the Jews among themselves, and, teaching them to regard each other as brethren and fellow-citizens, to promote mutual love and friendship. To this the Psalmist probably refers in Psal. cxxii. 3, 4.; and it was partly that, as one church, they might make one congregation, join in solemn worship together, and renew their oath of allegiance to the one true God, and to their excellent constitution and religion. Further, so large a concourse of people would give the greater solemnity to these festivals: and as no Israelite was to present himself before the Lord without some offering (Deut. xvi. 16, 17.), ample provision was thus made for the support of the ministers of the sanctuary. On these occasions, although the men were required to attend, it does not appear that women were prevented from going if they chose, at least to the passover. (See 1 Sam. 1. 3. 7. Luke ii. 41.) For greater security, however, against the attacks of robbers on the road, they used to travel in large companies, those who came from the same city, canton, or district, forming one company. They carried necessaries along with them, and tents for their lodg ing at night. It was among such a 66 company" that Joseph and Mary sought Jesus Christ (Luke ii. 44.): and to their journeying through a dreary valley on one of these festivals the Psalmist probably alludes. (lxxxiv. 6.) Further, as the Jewish sanctuary and service contained in them a shadow of good things to come, and were typical of the Christian church, this prescribed concourse from all parts of the country might be intended to typify the gathering of the people to Christ and into his church, from all parts of the world under the Christian dispensation. Hence St. Paul, alluding to these general assemblies of the Israelites on the three • Lightfoot's Works, vol. ii. pp. 947-950.

(1.) No man might enter the "mountain of the house," for so they called the temple, with his staff; weapons of offence being unsuited to the house of peace; and it being reputed indecorous to lean, when there, on any other staff than God. On this account it was, that our Lord expelled the buyers and sellers of cattle from the temple, with a whip of cords. (John ii. 15.)-(2.) No man was permitted to enter with shoes on his feet, nor dust on his feet, which he was obliged to wipe or wash (thus intimating the necessity of approaching the Most High divested of all worldly cares and affections); nor with money in his purse, nor with his purse about him. -(3.) Having arrived at the temple, every worshipper was prohibited from spitting there, as well as from using any irreverent gestures, or making it a thoroughfare to shorten his distance in crossing from one part of the city to another; and on entering the court, he must walk leisurely and gravely to his place, and there demean himself as in the presence of God. (4.) Having now entered to pray and attend the service, he was to stand with his feet one even with the other; and, casting his eyes downward, while he raised his heart upward, must cross his hands upon his breast, and stand as a servant before his master with all reverence and fear. The practice of looking down in prayer the Jews derived from those passages of Scripture, which speak of being ashamed to look up towards heaven, on account of their sinfulness: to this position of looking down and laying his hands upon his heart, the demeanour of the devout publican (Luke xviii. 13.) seems to be parallel. Even the priests, when they pronounced the blessing upon the people, neither looked up towards heaven, nor level upon the people, but down upon the ground; and the people were prohibited from looking upon them. (5.) However weary the worshipper might be with standing,

1 Luke xiv. 1. and Lightfoot's Horæ Hebraica on that passage. (Works, vol. ii. pp. 445, 446.) See also Wetstein's Notes, vol. i. p. 750. Michaelis remarks that our Saviour's observation in Luke xiv. 12-14. can only be fully understood in reference to a feast that formed a part of divine wor ship, and, as such, might look for a recompense from God: for we do not in ordinary cases expect that God should reward us in another world for every entertainment we give. Commentaries, vol. iii. p. 158. Schulzii Archæologia Hebraica, pp. 311-314.; Leusden's Philologus Hebræo-Mixtus, pp. 240-252.; Beausobre's and L'Enfant's Introduction (Bp. Watson's Theol. Tracts, vol. iii. pp. 225-234.); the Mosaic statutes relative to the Sabbath are fully discussed by Michaelis, Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 150-181.; vol. ii. pp. 399, 400.

See pp. 104-106. supra.

See pp. 100, 101.

This prohibition was derived from the command of God to Moses (Exod. iii. 5.), and Joshua. (v. 15.) The same usage obtains throughout the East to this day.

Nearly similar to this is the mode of travelling in the East to this hour. Such companies they now call caravans; and in many places there are buildings fitted up for their reception, called caravanserais. This account of the Israelites' mode of travelling furnishes a ready answer to the question, how Joseph and Mary could make a day's journey without discovering before night, that Jesus was not in the "company." In the daytime, as circumstances might lead them, the travellers would probably mingle with their friends and acquaintance; but in the evening, when they were about to encamp, every one would join the family to which he belonged. Jesus then did not appear when it was growing late, his parents first sought him, where they supposed he would most probably be, among his relations and acquaintance; and not finding him, returned to Jerusalem. Dr. Campbell's Translation of the Gospels, vol. ii. p. 449. note on Luke ii. 44.

As

grand feasts, says, "We are come to the general assembly | the Jewish festivals, is copiously related in the twelfth chapter and church of the first-born." (Heb. xii. 23.)

But besides the benefits to be derived from the religious celebration of these ordinances, Michaelis, to whom we are indebted for part of the preceding remarks, has pointed out several instances in which they produced a salutary effect on the community. Not only would their meeting together in one place for the purposes of religion and social intercourse tend to prevent a total alienation of rival tribes, as well as civil war, but it would also afford them an opportunity of being mutually reconciled. Further, it is not improbable that these annual meetings promoted the internal commerce of the Israelites, who were prohibited from carrying on traffic with foreigners; and, lastly, they had an important influence on the Jewish calendar, inasmuch as the year was arranged, so that the various festivals should fall in their respective months without interfering with the labours of the field.'

of Exodus, it is unnecessary to detail it again in this place: but as various traditional observances were in after-times added to the Mosaic precepts concerning this sacrifice, to which there are manifest allusions in the New Testament, we shall trace them, as briefly as the important nature of the subject will admit, under the following heads:-1. The time when it was to be kept;-2. The ceremonies with which it was to be celebrated;─3. The mystical signification of these rites.

1. Of the time when the Passover was to be kept.-This festival commenced on the evening subsequent to the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, the first in the Jewish sacred or ecclesiastical year (Exod. xii. 6. 8. 18. Lev. xxiii. 4-8. Num. xxviii. 16-27.), with eating what was called the paschal lamb; and it was to continue seven whole days, that is, until the twenty-first. The day preceding its commencement was IV. The first and most eminent of these festivals was the called the preparation of the passover. (John xix. 14.) DurPASSOVER,2 instituted the night before the Israelites' departure ing its continuance no leavened bread was allowed to be from Egypt, for a perpetual memorial of their signal deliver-used; hence the fourteenth day of the month Nisan might ance, and of the favour which God showed them in passing with great propriety be called (as we find it is in Matt. xxvi. over and sparing their first-born, when he slew the first-born 17. Mark xiv. 12.) the first day of unleavened bread, because of the Egyptians. (Exod. xii. 12-14. 29-51.) This festival was also called the feast or the days of unleavened bread (Exod. xxiii. 15. Mark xiv. 1. Acts xii. 3.); because it was unlawful to eat any other bread during the seven days the feast lasted. The name was also by a metonymy given to the lamb that was killed on the first day of this feast (Ezra vi. 20. Matt. xxvi. 17.), whence the expressions to eat the passover (Mark xiv. 12. 14.) and to sacrifice the passover. (1 Cor. v. 7.) Hence also St. Paul calls Jesus Christ our passover (ibid.), that is, our true paschal lamb. But the appellation, passover, belongs more particularly to the second day of the feast, viz. the fifteenth day of the month Nisan. It was ordained to be celebrated on the anniversary of the deliverance of the Israelites. This was an indispensable rite to be observed by every Israelite, except in particular cases enumerated in Num. ix. 1-13., on pain of death; and no uncircumcised person was allowed to partake of the passover. On this festive occasion, it was the custom at Jerusalem for the inhabitants to give the free use of their rooms and furniture to strangers at the passover. This usage will explain the circumstance of our Saviour's sending to a man to prepare for his eating the passover, who, by the relation, appears to have been a stranger to him. Further, in order to render this grand festival the more interesting, a custom was introduced in the later times of the Jewish polity 2. Of the ceremonies with which the Passover was to be celeof liberating some criminal. By whom or at what time brated.—The paschal lamb was to be a male, without blemish, this practice originated it is now impossible accurately to of the first year, either from the sheep or the goats (Exod. determine the most probable opinion is, that it was intro- xii. 5.): it was to be taken from the flocks four days before duced by the Romans themselves, perhaps by Pilate at the it was killed; and one lamb was to be offered for each family; commencement of his procuratorship of Judæa, with the per- and if its members were too few to eat a whole lamb, two mission of Augustus, in order to gratify the Jews by show-families were to join together. In the time of Josephus a ing them this public mark of respect. However this may be, it had become an established custom from which Pilate could not deviate (Matt. xxvii. 15. Luke xviii. 17. John xviii. 39.), and therefore he reluctantly liberated the malefactor Barabbas.

As the very interesting history of this most solemn of all
1 Commentaries on the Law of Moses, vol. iii. pp. 182-189. Jennings's

Jewish Antiquities, book iii. ch. 4. pp. 448, 449. Tappan's Lectures on
Jewish Antiquities, pp. 127, 128.

On the true meaning of the word passover Archbp. Magee has a learned disquisition in vol. i. of his Discourses on the Atonement, pp. 309

-321. That it was a kind of federal rite (as the Eucharist also is) between God and man, Dr. Cudworth has solidly proved in his "True Notion of the Lord's Supper," chap. vi. pp. 28-36. at the end of vol. ii. of his "Intellect nal Systein," 4to. edit.

• Schulzii Archæologia Hebr. p. 318.

• That the passover was a proper and real sacrifice, see largely proved by Archbp. Magee, on the Atonement, vol. i. pp. 297-309.

Lev. xxiii. 6. Mark xiv. 1. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. iii. c. 10. § 5. In like manner, Dr. Waterland has observed, a contempt and rejection of at least the thing signified by the sacrament of the Lord's supper, must necessarily exclude every man from the benefits of Christ's passion and death.

So, in the early ages of Christianity, no person was permitted to come to the Lord's supper until he had been baptized. As soon, however, as the passover was celebrated, every one was at liberty to go home the very next morning if he pleased (Deut. xvi. 7.), of course while the festival lasted, in order that those Jews, who came from a distance, might return

in time for getting in the harvest. Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp.

183, 184.

Hottinger has discussed the various opinions on the origin of this usage in a dissertation De rità dimittendi reum in festo Paschatis, Tempe Helvetic. vol. iv. p. 264. From the Jews the custom proceeded to the Christians; Valentinian and several other emperors having issued their edict, that some prisoners should be liberated from their bonds at the annual commemoration of our Saviour's resurrection. This custom obtained among the Venetians till the close of the eighteenth century. (Schulzii Archæol. Hebr. p. 321.)

the passover began in the evening. The fifteenth day, however, might also be called the first day of unleavened bread:9 since, according to the Hebrew computation of time, the evening of the fourteenth was the dawn or beginning of the fifteenth, on which day the Jews began to eat unleavened bread. (Exod. xii. 18.) But, if any persons were prevented from arriving at Jerusalem in time for the feast, either by any uncleanness contracted by touching a dead body, or by the length of the journey, he was allowed to defer his celebration of the passover until the fourteenth day of the following month, in the evening. (Num. ix. 10-12.) As it is not improbable that some difference or mistake might arise in determining the new moon, so often as such difference recurred, there would consequently be some discrepancy as to the precise time of commencing the passover. Such a discordance might easily arise between the rival and hostile sects of Pharisees and Sadducees; and such a difference, it has been conjectured, did exist at the time Jesus Christ celebrated the passover with his disciples, one whole day before the Pharisees offered their paschal sacrifice. Sacrifices peculiar to this festival were to be offered every day during its continuance; but the first and last days were to be sanctified above all the rest, by abstaining from servile labour, and holding a sacred convocation. (Exod. xii. 16. Lev. xxiii. 7, 8.)

paschal society consisted at least of ten persons to one lamb, and not more than twenty.12 Our Saviour's society was com posed of himself and the twelve disciples. (Matt. xxvi. 20. Luke xxii. 14.) Next followed the killing of the passover: before the exode of the Israelites from Egypt, this was done in their private dwellings; but after their settlement in Canaan, it was ordered to be performed "in the place which the Lord should choose to place his name there." (Deut. xvi. 2.) This appears to have been at first wherever the ark was deposited, and ultimately at Jerusalem in the courts of the temple.13 Every particular person (or rather a delegate from every paschal society) slew his own victim: according to Josephus, between the ninth hour, or three in the afternoon, and the eleventh, that is, about sunset; and within that space

The fifteenth day is so called in Lev. xxiii. 6. and by Josephus, who expressly terms the second day of unleavened bread the sixteenth day of the month. Ant. Jud. lib. iii. c. 10. $5.

10 Schulzii Archæol. Hebr. pp. 318, 319. That a difference did exist as to the time of beginning the passover is intimated in John xiii. 1, 2. xviii. 28. and xix. 14. 31. The conjecture above noticed was made by Schulze; and if it could be substantiated, it would reconcile the seeming differences occurring in the evangelists, respecting the time when Christ actually cele brated the passover. Dr. A. Clarke has collected the principal opinions on this much contested point, in his discourse on the Eucharist, pp. 5-24. See also Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, book iii. c. 4. pp. 455–458.

equally proper. The Hebrews, however, in general preferred a lamb.

11 The Hebrew word n (seн) means either a lamb or a kid: either was

12 De Bell. Jud. lib. vi. c. 9. §3.

13 The area of the three courts of the temple, besides the rooms and other places in it, where the paschal victim might be offered, contained upwards of 435,600 square cubits; so that there was ample room for more than 500,000 men to be in the temple at the same time. Lamy, De Tabernacule. lib. vii. c. 9. §§ 4, 5.

14 See Lightfoot's Temple Service, ch. xii. § 5. (Works, vol. i. pp. 957-959.)

of time it was, that Jesus Christ, our true paschal lamb, was crucified. (Matt. xxvii. 46.) The victim being killed, one of the priests received the blood into a vessel, which was handed from one priest to another, until it came to him who stood next the altar, and by whom it was sprinkled at the bottom of the altar. After the blood was sprinkled, the lamb was hung up and flayed: this being done, the victim was opened, the fat was taken out and consumed on the altar, after which the owner took it to his own house. The paschal lamb was to be roasted whole, which might be commanded as a matter of convenience at the first passover, in order that their culinary utensils might be packed up ready for their departure while the lamb was roasting; no part of it was to be eaten either in a raw state, or boiled. (Exod. xii. 9.) The propriety of the prohibition of eating any portion of the paschal lamb in a raw state will readily appear, when it is known that raw flesh and palpitating limbs were used in some of the old heathen sacrifices and festivals, particularly in honour of the Egyptian deity Osiris, and the Grecian Bacchus, who were the same idol under different names. That no resemblance or memorial of so barbarous a superstition might ever debase the worship of Jehovah, He made this early and express provision against it. On the same ground, probably, He required the paschal lamb to be eaten privately and entire, in opposition to the bacchanalian feasts, in which the victim was publicly torn in pieces, carried about in pomp, and then devoured. Further, the prohibition | of boiling the paschal lamb was levelled against a superstitious practice of the Egyptians and Syrians, who were accustomed to boil their victims, and especially to seethe a kid or lamb in the milk of its dam; as the command to roast and eat the whole of the lamb-not excepting its inwards without leaving any portion until the following morning, was directed against another superstition of the antient heathens, whose priests carefully preserved and religiously searched the entrails of their victims, whence they gathered their pretended knowledge of futurity. Those, fikewise, who frequented pagan temples, were eager to carry away and devote to superstitious uses some sacred relics or fragments of the sacrifices. In short, the whole ceremonial of the passover appears to have been so adjusted as to wage an open and destructive war against the gods and idolatrous ceremonies of Egypt, and thus to form an early and powerful barrier around the true worship and servants of Jehovah.' After the lamb was thus dressed, it was eaten by each family or paschal society. "The FIRST passover was to be eaten standing, in the posture of travellers, who had no time to lose; and with unleavened bread and bitter herbs, and no bone of it was to be broken. (Exod. xii. 8. 11. 46.) The posture of travellers was enjoined them, both to enliven their faith in the promise of their then speedy deliverance from Egypt; and also, that they might be ready to begin their march presently after supper. They were ordered, therefore, to eat it with their loins girded; for as they were accustomed to wear long and loose garments, such as are generally used by the eastern nations to this day, it was necessary to tie them up with a girdle about their loins, when they either travelled or engaged in any laborious employment." 993 Further, "they were to eat the passover with shoes on their feet, for in those hot countries they ordinarily wore sandals, which were a sort of clogs, or went barefoot; but in travelling they used shoes, which were a kind of short boots, reaching a little way up the legs. Hence, when our Saviour sent his twelve disciples to preach in the neighbouring towns, designing to convince them by their own experience of the extraordinary care of Divine Providence over them, that they might not be discouraged by the length and danger of the journeys they would be called to undertake;-on this account he ordered them to make no provision for their present journey, particularly, not to take shoes on their feet, but to be shod with sandals. (Matt. x. 10. compared with Mark vi. 9.) Again, they were to eat the passover with staves in their hands, such as were always used by travellers in those rocky countries, both to support them in slippery places, and defend them against assaults. (Gen. xxxii. 10.) Of this sort 1 Tappan's Lectures on Jewish Antiquities, pp. 123, 124. Beausobre says that these sodalities were called brotherhoods, and the guests companions or friends, and that our Saviour's reproof of Judas by calling him friend or companion (Matt. xxvi. 50.) was both just and cutting, because he betrayed him after having eaten the passover with him. Thus when Elisha sent his servant Gehazi on a message in haste, he bade him "gird up his loins," 2 Kings iv. 29.; and when our Saviour set about washing his disciples' feet, "he took a towel and girded himself,"

John xiii. 4.

David beautifully alludes to this custorn in the twenty-third Psalm; where (ver. 4.), expressing his trust in the goodness of the Almighty, he

was probably Moses's rod which he had in his hand, when God sent him with a message to Pharaoh (Exod. iv. 2.), and which was afterwards used as an instrument in working so many miracles. So necessary in these countries was a staff or walking-stick on a journey, that it was a usual thing for persons when they undertook long journeys to take a spare staff with them, for fear one should fail. When Christ, therefore, sent his apostles on the embassy above mentioned, he ordered them not to take staves (Luke íx. 3. Mark vi. 8.), that is, only one staff or walking-stick, without making provision of a spare one, as was common in long journeys. "The paschal lamb was to be eaten with unleavened bread, on pain of being cut off from Israel, or excommunicated; though some critics understand this of being put to death. The reason of this injunction was, partly to remind them of the hardships they had sustained in Egypt, unleavened being more heavy and less palatable than leavened bread; on which account it is called the bread of affliction (Deut. xvi. 3.); and partly to commemorate the speed of their deliverance or departure from thence, which was such, that they had not sufficient time to leaven their bread; it is expressly said, that their "dough was not leavened, because they were thrust out of Egypt and could not tarry (Exod. xii. 39.); and on this account it was enacted into a standing law, Thou shalt eat unleavened bread, even the bread of affliction; for thou camest forth out of Egypt in haste.' (Deut. xvi. 3.) This rite, therefore, was not only observed at the first passover, but in all succeeding ages."5 But from the metaphorical sense in which the term leaven is used, this prohibition is supposed to have had a moral view; and that the divine legislator's intention was, that the Israelites should cleanse their minds from malice, envy, and hypocrisy; in a word, from the leaven of Egypt. In consequence of this injunction, the Hebrews, as well as the modern Jews, have always taken particular care to search for all the leaven that might be in their houses, and to burn it.7

6

The passover was likewise to be eaten “with bitter herbs :" this was doubtless prescribed as "a memorial of their severe bondage in Egypt, which made their lives bitter unto them; and possibly also to denote that the haste, in which they de parted, compelled them to gather such wild herbs as most readily presented themselves. To this sauce the Jews afterwards added another, made of dates, raisins, and several ingredients beaten together to the consistence of mustard, which is called charoseth, and is designed to represent the clay in which their forefathers wrought while they were in bondage to the Egyptians.

"It was further prescribed, that they should eat the flesh of the lamb, without breaking any of his bones. (Exod. xii. 46.) This the latter Jews understand, not of the smaller bones, but only of the greater which had marrow in them. Thus was this rite also intended to denote their being in haste, not having time to break the bones and suck out the marrow."

Lastly, "it was ordered that nothing of the paschal lamb should remain till the morning; but, if it were not all eaten, it was to be consumed by fire. (Exod. xii. 10.) The same law was extended to all eucharistical sacrifices (Lev. xxii. 30.); no part of which was to be left, or set by, lest it should be corrupted, or converted to any profane or common use,— an injunction which was designed, no doubt, to maintain the honour of sacrifices, and to teach the Jews to treat with reverence whatever was consecrated more especially to the service of God."

Such were the circumstances under which the first passover was celebrated by the Israelites; for, after they were settled in the land of Canaan, they no longer ate it standing, but the guests reclined on their left arms upon couches placed round exclaims, Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me, thy ROD and thy STAFF they comfort

me.

Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, book iii. ch. iv. pp. 468-470. (London, 1823, 8vo.)

Lightfoot's Works, vol. i. pp. 953, 954. Allen's Modern Judaism, p. 381. See Matt. xvi. 6. St. Paul, writing to the Corinthians a short time be

fore the passover, exhorts them to cleanse out the old leaven of lewdness by casting the incestuous person out of the church; and to keep the feast (of the Lord's supper) not with the old leaven of sensuality and uncleanness, with which they were formerly corrupted, neither with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread (or qualities) of sincerity and truth. Macknight on 1 Cor. v. 7, 8.; who observes, that it is probable from this passage that the disciples of Christ began very early to celebrate the Lord's supper with peculiar solemnity, annually, on the day on which the Redeemer suffered, which was the day of the Jewish passover, called in modern language Easter. It is with beautiful propriety, therefore, that this passage of Saint Paul is introduced by the Anglican Church among the occasional versicles for Easter Sunday.

Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, book iii. ch. iv. pp. 470, 471.

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