CHAPTER X.

ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER.

§ 356. We now pass from the Cases and Numbers of Substantives to the Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives.

Preparatory, however, to the consideration of this part of Etymology, we must attend to certain phenomena connected with the forms in -ER-as wheth-er, oth-er, &c.

Let these serve as a text.

I. First, it may be stated of them that the idea which they express is not that of one out of many, but that of one out of

two.

II. Secondly, it may be stated of them, that the termination -er is the same termination that we find in the comparative degree.

As the Sanskrit form kataras corresponds with the comparative degree, where there is the comparison of two things with each other, so the word katamas is a superlative form, and in the superlative degree lies the comparison of many things with each other.

Hence other and whether (to which may be added either and neither) are pronouns with the comparative form.

Let us now go to some other words. In the list come— 1. Certain pronouns, as ei-th-er, n-ei-th-er, whe-th-er, o-th-er.

2. Certain prepositions and adverbs, as ov-er, und-er, af-t-er.

3. Adjectives of the comparative degree; as wis-er, strong-er, bett-er, &c.

4. Certain adjectives, with the form of the comparative, but the power of the positive degree; as upp-er, und-er, inn-er, out-er, hind-er.

Now what is the idea common to all these words, which is expressed by the sign -er, and which connects the four divisions into one class? It is not the mere idea of comparison. Bopp, who has best generalised the view of these forms, considers the fundamental idea to be that of duality. In the comparative degree we have a relation between one object and some other object like it, or a relation between two single elements of comparison: A is wiser than B. In the superlative degree we have a relation between one object and all others like it, or a relation between one single and one complex element of comparison: A is wiser than B, C, D, &c.

The more important of the specific modifications of the general idea involved in the comparison of two objects are,— 1. Contrariety; as in inner, outer, under, upper, over. Latin the words for right and left end in -er,—dexter,

sinister.

In

2. Choice in the way of an alternative; as either, neither, whether, other.

An extension of the reasoning probably explains forms like the Greek ἀμφό-τερ-ος, and the plural possessive forms νωΐ-τερ-ος, ἡμέτερος, &c., which, like our own forms in -r, (ou-r, you-r) correspond in termination with the comparative degree (oopw-rep-oc, wiser). Words, also, like hither and thither are instances of what is probably the effect of a similar association of ideas.

A confirmation of Bopp's view is afforded by the Laplandic languages. Herein the distinction between one of two and one of more than two is expressed by affixes; and these affixes are the signs of the comparative and superlative: gi=who; gua-bba who of two; gutte-mush who of many.

1. Gi=who, so that guabba may be called its comparative form.

2. Gutte also who, so that guttemush may be called its superlative.

3. Precisely as the words guabba and guttemush are formed, so also are the regular degrees of adjectives.

a. Nuorra young; nuor-ab = younger; nuora-mush = youngest.

b. Bahhabad; baha-b=worse; baha-mush=worst.

The following extracts from Stockfleth's Lappish Grammar, were probably written without any reference to the Sanskrit or Greek. "Guabba, of which the form and meaning are comparative, appears to have originated in a combination of the pronoun gi, and the comparative affix -abbo."-"Guttemush, of which the form and meaning are superlative, is similarly derived from the pronoun gutte, and the superlative affix -mush."—Grammatik i det Lappiske Sprog, §§ 192, 193.

CHAPTER XI.

THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE.

§ 357. In the present English the Adjectives preserve the same form throughout both numbers, and in all genders. Consequently they are destitute of case; the objective, the nominative, and the possessive senses being expressed alike.—A good man, a good woman, a good sword; the good men, the good women, the good swords; a good man's son, a good woman's son, a good sword's edge.

The only mode in which adjectives change their form is in the case of the Degrees of Comparison.

The adjective in its simple form is called the Positive Adjective. From the adjective in its Positive form, are formed—1, the Comparative; 2, the Superlative Degree.

The sign of the Comparative Degree is equivalent in meaning to the word more. In the word bright-er, the syllable -er is the sign of the Comparative Degree. The word bright-er is equivalent in meaning to more bright.

The sign of the Superlative Degree is equivalent in meaning to the word most. In the word bright-est, the syllable -est is the sign of the Superlative Degree. Also, the word bright-est is equivalent in meaning to the words most bright.

The comparative degree is formed from the positive by the addition of the syllable -er; as cold, cold-er; rich, rich-er ; dry, dry-er; low, low-er. This is the manner in which the greater part of the English comparatives is formed.

§ 358. Comparison of Adverbs.-The sun shines bright.-Herein the word bright means brightly; and although the use of the latter word would have been the more elegant, the expression is not ungrammatical; the word bright being looked upon as an adjectival adverb.

The sun shines to-day brighter than it did yesterday, and to-morrow it will shine brightest.-Here also the sense is adverbial; from whence we get the fact, that adverbs take degrees of comparison.

Now let the root mag-, as in magnus, μéyaç, and mikil (Norse), give the idea of greatness. In the Latin language we have from it two comparative forms: 1. the adjectival comparative major greater; 2. the adverbial comparative magis =more (plus). The same takes place in Moso-Gothic: maiza means greater, and is adjectival; mais means more, and is adverbial. The Anglo-Saxon forms are more instructive still; e. g. päs pe má all the more, päs þé bet all the better, have a comparative sense, but not a comparative form, the sign r being absent.

=

§ 359. Change of vowel.-By reference to Rask's “Grammar" (§ 128), it may be seen that in the Anglo-Saxon there were, for the comparative and superlative degrees, two forms; viz. -or and -re, and -ost and -este, respectively.

The fulness or smallness of a vowel in a given syllable may work a change in the nature of the vowel in a syllable adjoining. In the Anglo-Saxon the following words exhibit a change of vowel:

Of this change, the word last quoted is a still-existing specimen, as old, elder and older, eldest and oldest. Between the two forms there is a difference in meaning, elder being used as a substantive, and having a plural form, elders.

It has been stated above that in Anglo-Saxon there were two forms for the comparative and superlative degrees, one in -re and -este, the other in -or and -ost, respectively. Now the first of these was the form taken by adjectives; as se