considerable magnitude. For a long time it was without cities; but at length Tigránes, one of its monarchs, erected Tigranocer'ta.

Cária was chiefly remarkable for the Greek colonies on the coast. Lyc'ia, Pisídia, and Pam'phylia, were mountainous districts. Cilícia bordered upon Syria, from which it was separated by Mount Am'anus: its chief cities were Tar'sus and Anchíale, both founded by Sardanapálus.

SECTION II.-Ancient History of Asia Minor.

THE three kingdoms of Asia Minor that best deserve notice were the Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. The history of Troy consists of mere traditions preserved by the Greek epic and dramatic poets; its chronology is very uncertain, and the entire narrative very doubtful. Troy is said to have been originally founded by Dar'danus, a native of Samothrace (about B. c. 1400). To him succeeded Erichthónius, celebrated for his splendid herds of horses; Tros, who named the city Troy; I'lus, who changed the name to I'lium; Laom'edon, during whose reign the city was sacked by Her'cules; and Podar'kes, who was also called Príam. Alexander, or Paris, the son of Príam, being sent as ambassador into southern Greece, carried off Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. The Grecian kings espoused the cause of the injured husband, and with their united forces warred against Troy. The city was taken after a siege that lasted ten years, and was pillaged and burned by the conquerors.

PHRYGIAN history is also composed of obscure traditions; but that the Phrygians were originally a very powerful people, appears from the great diffusion of their national worship throughout Europe. The investigations of modern travellers have brought to light new proofs of the greatness of the Phrygians in their tombs and temples excavated from the solid rock. Their chief deity was Cybéle, who seems to have been a personification of the prolific powers of the earth: her priests were named Coryban'tes; celebrated for their frantic dances, in which they beat and cut themselves. Most of the Phrygian kings were named either Mídas or Gor'dius; but the order of their succession can not be ascertained. Gor'dius I., the founder of the city Gor'dium, was originally a peasant; when raised to the throne, he consecrated his cart to the gods. The beam was fastened to the yoke by a complicated knot; and a traditional oracle declared, that whoever untied the knot should be king of Asia. When this was told to Alexander the Great, he cut it through with his sword. In the reign of Mídas V., Phrygia became a province of the Lydian empire.

The LYDIANS, called also Mæónians, were a branch of the Carians. Three dynasties reigned over them successively. That of the Aty'adæ terminated (B. c. 1232) in the person of Om'phale, who was said to be the wife of Hercules. The race of the Heraclidæ terminated with Candaúles, who was murdered at the instigation of his queen, by Gy'ges, a Lydian nobleman (B. c. 727). Gy'ges founded the dynasty of the Merm'nadæ, under whose sway Lyd'ia rose to great power. During the reign of Ar'dys, the second of the dynasty, Asia Minor was de

vastated by hordes of northern barbarians, called Cimmerians, who had been expelled from their original seats by the Scythians. Their ravages were continued for about half a century: but they were finally driven out by Alyat'tes, the grandson of Ar'dys. Encouraged by his success against the Cimmerians, Alyat'tes endeavored to check the growing power of the Medes, and for six years waged war against Cyax'ares. The contest was at length about to be decided by a great battle, when a total eclipse of the sun so terrified both armies in the midst of the fight, that they separated in consternation (в. c. 601). This remarkable eclipse was predicted by Tháles of Milétus, and is the first recorded to have been calculated by astronomers.

Crœ'sus, the son and successor of Alyat'tes, subdued all the Grecian states in Asia Minor, and extended his empire on the eastern side to the river Hálys. The magnificence of his court at Sardis attracted visiters from different countries; but Crœ'sus was more anxious to entertain philosophers and men of learning from Greece. The illustrious Sólon was once his guest, and with honorable freedom refused to declare Cro'sus perfectly happy until he knew the termination of his career. The Lydian monarch was deeply offended; but ere long he had reason to admire the wisdom of the Athenian sage. Seduced by the pretended oracles of Délphi, he waged war against the rising Persian empire; but was defeated by Cy'rus, and taken prisoner. Being sentenced to death by the barbarous victor, he exclaimed, when placed on the funeral pile, "O Sólon, Sólon!" Cy'rus asked the meaning of this invocation; and was so struck by the impressive example of the philosopher's wisdom, that he not only spared the life of Croe'sus, but made him his friend and counsellor (B. c. 549).

Lydia, and the rest of Asia Minor, remained subject to the Persian empire until the time of Alexander the Great.

SECTION III.-Syria.-Geographical Outline.

THE name of Syria was loosely given by the Greeks, as that of A'ram was by the Hebrews, not only to the country now called by that name, but also to Mesopotámia and part of Asia Minor; but it is properly restricted to the region between Mount Am'anus on the north, the Euphrátes on the east, Arábia on the south, and Phœnícia on the west. It has been variously divided, but the most convenient division is into three unequal portions-Syria Proper, which includes the provinces of Commagéne, Seleúcis, and Colé-Syria; Phoenicia and the country of the Philistines; and Palestine, of which we shall treat in a separate chapter.

The principal city of Commagéne was Samosáta on the Euphrátes: there were several trading towns of minor importance, all in the vicinity. Seleúcis was adorned with many splendid cities during the reigns of the successors of Alexander, of which the most remarkable were Antioch and Seleucia. It contained also Hierap'olis, dedicated to the Syrian goddess Berea, the modern Aleppo, and Heliopolis (Baal'bec), whose magnificent ruins still attract admiration. Calé-Syria, or Hollow Syria, was so called because it lies between two parallel chains of mountains, Lib'anus and Antilib'anus: it contained Damascus, the

ancient metropolis of Syria, which existed as a city in the days of Abraham, Abʻila, and Laodicéa. The Syrian desert adjoins this division, in the midst of which is a fertile oasis, on which the city of Tadmor, or Palmy'ra, was founded by Solomon. Its ruins rival those of Baalbec in magnitude and beauty. Southeast of this was Thap'sacus, opposite to which the Euphrátes was fordable.

Phoenicia, or Phoenice, skirted the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, but its boundaries were almost perpetually varying. It contained Sídon, the most ancient commercial city in the world; Tyre, commonly called "the daughter of Sídon;" Ar'adus, also an insular city; Trip'olis, so called because it was colonized by the three preceding cities conjointly Byb'lus and Bery'tus, the modern Beiroot, which is still a good harbor.

Tyre was originally a Sidonian colony, but rose rapidly above the parent state, and became a flourishing commercial city. After its capture by Alexander the Great, Tyre gradually declined, less in consequence of the conqueror's vengeance than of the founding of Alexandria in Egypt, which soon became the seat of the commerce that had previously centred in Tyre.

SECTION IV.-Social and Political Condition of the Syrians and

Phænicians.

SYRIA contained but one large river, the Oron'tes, a turbid and rapid stream, whose navigation is impeded by rapids, and whose waters can not be used for domestic purposes. But there are several minor rivers in the neighborhood of Damascus, which, as well as their tributary streams, are remarkable for their limpid waters and abundance of fish. The soil is generally better suited to pasturage than agriculture. Two large valleys of mineral salt added greatly to the natural wealth of the country; and the mountains of Lebanon supplied abundance of excellent timber both for house and ship-building. Syria was consequently partly suited to a nomad, and partly to a commercial people; and this mixture of the two opposite characters, with scarcely any trace of the intermediate agricultural class, led to many revolutions in the Syrian government; the cities were more or less republican, while the rural districts were subject to petty despots. The Syrian religion appears to have been elementary; that is, the objects of worship were the personifications of some powers of nature: their most celebrated deity, Astar'te, or the Syrian goddess, represented both the moon and the prolific power of the earth, and was worshipped with the same licentious ceremonies as the Babylonian Mylit'ta.

THE PHOENICIANS, like the Syrians, belonged to the great Aramean, or Semitic family of nations. Their narrow and short line of coast, indented with excellent bays and harbors, was covered with lofty and wooded mountains, that jut out into the sea, and form bold promontories. Several islands stud the coast, on which cities and commercial establishments were founded, as well as on the mainland. Each of these cities was an independent state; but they were generally united by a federative league, under the presidency of Sidon, and afterward

of Tyre. The religion of the Phoenicians appears to have been more sanguinary than that of most other nations. Tham'muz, or Adónis, was worshipped with very licentious rites, which were supposed to have a mystic signification.

SECTION V.-History of the Syrians and Phænicians.

SYRIA was divided into a number of petty states, most of which were subdued by the Jewish king, David (B. c. 1044). Toward the close of Solomon's reign, Rézon, who had been originally a slave, threw off the yoke, and founded the Syrian kingdom of Damascus. Ben-hádad, the most powerful of his successors, waged a long and sanguinary war against the kingdom of Israel, during the reigns of Ahab and Jehóram. He was finally murdered by Házael, one of his servants (B. c. 884), who usurped the vacant throne. Házael was a warlike prince; he gained several brilliant victories over the forces of Israel and Judah, compelling the monarchs of both to resign several important provinces, and pay him tribute. He also made himself master of E'lath on the Red sea, and greatly increased the commercial prosperity of his dominions. But these advantages were lost under the reign of his inglorious son, Ben-hádad II.

The Syrians recovered some of their power under Rézin; toward the close of his reign, he entered into alliance with Pékah, king of Israel, against A'haz, king of Judah. The Syrians and Israelites gained so many advantages, that A'haz sought the protection of Tiglath-piléser, king of Assyria, who marched against Damascus, captured the city, dragged the inhabitants away captive, and put an end to the kingdom (B. c. 740).

IT has been already mentioned that most of the PHENICIAN cities were independent states. Tyre is, however, the only one whose history can be satisfactorily traced. Its first sovereign was Ab'ical (about B. c. 1050), who was contemporary with David. His son and successor, Híram, was united by the strictest bonds of friendship to the great Jewish king, and also to his son Solomon. During the reign of Híram, Tyre acquired the supremacy of Phoenicia, and became the most flourishing emporium of commerce in the ancient world.

The most remarkable successors of Híram were Ethbáal I., the father of the wicked Jezebel, wife of Ahab, in whose reign some important colonies were planted in Africa; and Pygmálion, whose murder of Sicha'us led to the foundation of Carthage (about B. c. 900). Dído, the wife of Sicha'us, aided by numerous Tyrians, escaped by sea with her husband's treasures, and sought a new country on the northern shores of Africa. Here she erected the city of Carthage, which soon rivalled Tyre itself in commercial prosperity.

The Tyrians exercised their supremacy over the surrounding cities with so much cruelty, that the Phoenicians applied for protection to the Assyrians, and afterward to the Babylonians. The Assyrians, unable to cope with the Tyrians by sea, retired, leaving the city uninjured. But Nebuchadnezzar so exhausted Tyre by a constant blockade, that. it was almost wholly abandoned by its inhabitants, who erected the city

of New Tyre upon a neighboring island. Soon after this event, a change was made in the form of government; annual magistrates, called Shophetím, or, according to the Greek orthography, Suffétes, being chosen instead of kings. After Cyrus had conquered Babylon, the Phoenician cities submitted of their own accord (B. c. 538); but though they became dependancies of the Persian empire, they were permitted to retain their native governments. Tyre again became subject to kings, and supplied the strength of the Persian naval power. It was taken by Alexander the Great (B. c. 332), and from that time it sunk into hopeless decay.

SECTION VI.-Phoenician Colonies and Foreign Possessions.

THE system of colonization in commercial states has been always the greatest aid to the progress of civilization: colonies are founded by trading nations for the purpose of securing a lucrative commerce, by establishing a market for the manufactured produce of the parent state, and a carrying-trade for its merchants and seamen. Such colonies, unlike the military establishments of despotic states, require to be placed under the guidance of persons advanced in political knowledge, who know how to vary the institutions derived from the government at home, so as to suit the altered circumstances of their position and foreign relations hence civil liberty has always advanced more rapidly in commercial colonies than in the states from which they were derived, and the science of legislation has attained greater perfection than in more ancient establishments.

In commercial states, the distinction between the citizen and the soldier is very strongly marked; and most commercial states, in ancient and modern times employed foreign mercenaries. The prophet Ezekiel, whose account of Tyre is the most perfect record of its ancient condition, enumerates the countries that supplied the Tyrian armies and navies with warriors.*

The Phoenician colonies proceeded from east to west along the coasts of the Mediterranean, occupying the principal islands. Cyprus, called in Scripture Kittím, or Chittím, was not only a colony but a province of the Tyrians, and vestiges of their establishments on the island still exist. From Cyprus they extended their settlements to Crete and some of the islands in the Archipelago. Thence they proceeded to Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia, spreading their cities unequally along the coasts, and very rarely attempting the conquest of the interior. Their establishments in Sicily and Sardinia, indeed, appear to have been only naval stations for the vessels employed in the trade with western Europe, especially with Spain, which was the Mexico or Peru of the ancient world. The Spanish peninsula, called in Scripture Tar'shish, from the city Tartes'sus, was the country with which the Tyrians had the most lucrative trade; and the colonies they established there soon became independent states. It would seem that the Tyrians were by no means anxious to retain supremacy over their colonies, wisely preferring a close alliance, cemented by common descent,

• Ezekiel xxvii. 8-11.