used its power with moderation and wisdom; but the Bacchiads, proud of their race and great commercial wealth, insulted their subjects; and Cyp'selus, an opulent citizen of Æolian descent, aided by the commonalty, usurped the government (B. c. 657), and held the supreme power for thirty years. On his death, he was succeeded by his son Perian'der, who is sometimes ranked among the Seven Wise Men of Greece, though he is described by many writers as a rapacious, oppressive, and cruel despot. His reign lasted forty years, and yet is supposed to have been shortened either by violence or grief for the loss of his son. He was succeeded by his nephew Psammet'ichus, whose reign lasted only three years, when he was expelled by his subjects, assisted by a Spartan army (B. c. 584). This revolution was followed by the establishment of a commercial aristocracy, whose exact constitution is uuknown, but which long kept Corinth in close alliance with Sparta. The Corinthian trade consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic and Italian merchandise, for which her position gave her many peculiar advantages. The period of Corinth's highest prosperity closed with the government of the Cyp'selids; and the loss of Corcyra one of her colonies which had been kept in subjection by Periander, but revolted after his death, proved a blow to her power which she never recovered. The naval engagement between the Corcyrians and Corinthians (B. c. 650) is the first sea-fight recorded in history.

The history of Sic'yon and the other Achæan states presents a series of revolutions similar to those of Corinth. After various revolutions and usurpations, they all adopted republican institutions, about the time that the Cyp'selids were expelled from Corinth.

The constitution of Arcádia became republican when Aristodémus, its last king, was stoned by his subjects for having betrayed Aristom'enes and the Messenians.

The regal dignity was abolished in Argos so early as B. c. 984; but nothing is known of the circumstances that led to the change, or the peculiar nature of the republic by which it was succeeded.

E'lis preserved its internal peace, owing to the wise laws of Iph'itus, a contemporary of Lycurgus; while the sanctity of its soil ensured its external security. After the abolition of royal power two supreme magistrates were chosen, called Hellanodícæ, to whose office was added the charge of superintending the Olympic games. Their number was subsequently increased to ten, one being chosen from each of the Elian tribes; and their power was limited by a senate of ninety, whose members were chosen for life.

SECTION VI.-History of the principal Grecian Islands.

THE revolutions in the Grecian islands were very similar to those on the continent, republican constitutions having succeeded to monarchy in most of them. After the Athenians had acquired the sovereignty of the sea, the insular states lost their independence; for though they were called confederates, they were treated as subjects; no change, however, was made in their internal constitutions. We shall only notice the islands that were most remarkable in history.

Corcyra was occupied by a Corinthian colony under Chersic'rates

(B. c. 753), who expelled or subdued the former inhabitants. As the leader and most of his companions had been driven into exile by political commotions, they retained but little affection for the parent state; while the rapid progress of the Corcyrean power excited the commercial jealousy of Corinth. These circumstances led to an open war. The Corcyrean constitution appears to have been originally aristocratic or oligarchical, like that of most Dorian states; but after the Persian wars a democratic faction arose, powerfully supported by the Athenians, which produced the most violent internal commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcy'ra.

Ægína, first colonized B. c. 1358, rapidly grew, by commerce, and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. It even established colonies of its own in Creté and Pontus. Ægína was long the successful rival of Athens; it was subdued by Themistocles (B. c. 485).

The island of Eubœ'a received many different colonies from the mainland of Greece; but its cities were not united by any confederation, each possessing a separate constitution. It was subdued by the Athenians after the Persian wars; but the islanders made several sanguinary struggles to regain their independence.

The Cyclades were all, except Délos, rendered tributary to Athens, when that state acquired the supremacy of the sea.

Creté was celebrated in the heroic ages for the laws of Mínos (*B. C. 1300). After the death of Clean'thus (*B. c. 800), republican constitutions were adopted in the principal cities, which thenceforth became independent states. The Cretans rarely engaged in foreign wars, but they were almost incessantly involved in mutual hostilities; a circumstance that tended greatly to degrade the national character.

Cy'prus was only partially colonized by the Greeks, whose principal settlement was at Sal'amis, founded by Teucer, a little after the Trojan war (B. c. 1100). The island was successively subject to the Phœnicians, Egyptians, and Persians. The kings of Sal'amis frequently revolted against their Persian masters, and always maintained a qualified independence. When Alexander the Great besieged Tyre (B. c. 332), he was voluntarily joined by the nine Cypriot kings, and thenceforth the island was annexed to the Macedonian monarchy.

The history of Rhodes belongs properly to the portion of this work which treats of the successors of Alexander, to which we refer our readers.

SECTION VII.-History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor.

FROM B. c. 1200 TO B. c. 500.

THE Colonies founded by the Greeks, between the period of the Dorian migration and the final subversion of Grecian liberty by the triumph of the Macedonians, were the most numerous and important established by any nation, and all acted a very conspicuous part in accelerating the progress of civilization.

The colonies that first engage our attention are those that were established along the western coast of Asia Minor, from the Hellespont to the confines of Cilic'ia, in consequence of the revolutions produced by the Dorian migration and conquest of the Peloponnésus. They were

established by the Æolians, Ionians, and Carians; their commerce soon exceeded that of the parent states; and in them were produced the first of Grecian poets, Hómer and Alcæ'us; and the first of Grecian philosophers, Thales and Pythagoras.

The EOLIANS, after the conquest of the Peloponnésus, settled for a time in Thrace, whence they passed over, after the lapse of a generation, to Asia (*B. c. 1124), and occupied the coasts of Mýsia and Cária giving to the strip of land they colonized the name of Æólis. They acquired possession, also, of the islands of Les'bos, Ten'edos, and the cluster called the Hecatonnési (hundred islands). Twelve cities were erected on the mainland by the Æolians, of which the chief were Cymé and Smyr'na. The latter city was destroyed by the Lydians (*B. C. 600), and was not restored until four hundred years later, when it became a flourishing Macedonian colony. The Æolian cities maintained their independence until the age of Cy'rus, when those on the mainland were subdued by the Persians. When Athens acquired supremacy by sea, the insular states were forced to submit to her authority, and were in general ruled with great severity.

The IONIAN migration took place some years after the Eolian, about B. c. 1044. It was the largest that ever left Greece; and fortunately it is that, with whose details we are best acquainted. It originated in the abolition of royalty at Athens: the sons of Códrus reluctant to live as private individuals, declared their design of leading a colony into Asia: they were readily joined by the Ionian exiles from the northern Peloponnésus, who were straitened for room in At'tica, and by large bands of emigrants from the neighboring states, actuated by political discontent, or the mere love of change. They were supplied liberally with ships and munitions of war. They pursued their voyage to Asia Minor, and landed on the coast south of 'olis. After a long series of sanguinary wars, the native barbarians resigned their lands to the intruders; and the Ionians acquired possession of the whole of the valuable district between Milétus and Mount Sip/ylus.

The Ionians then began to erect cities; they established twelve, united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy; viz., Eph'esus, Ery'thræ, Clazom'enæ, Colophon, My'us, Milétus, Priéne, Phocæ'a, Leb'edos, Sámos, Téos, and Chíos, of which the last three were insular stations. Milétus was the chief of the Ionian colonies: but Eph'esus was the most renowned of the cities.

All the Ionian cities were united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy. Deputies from the different states met, at stated times, in a temple of Nep'tune, erected on the headland of Mycále, which they named Helicónean, from Helíce, the chief of their ancient cities in the northern Peloponnésus. Here they deliberated on all matters that affected the Pan-Ionian league; but the council never interfered with the domestic government of the several cities. They also celebrated festivals and public games, which rivalled in magnificence those of Greece. In the midst of their prosperity, the Ionian cities became engaged in a long and arduous struggle with the Lydian kings, which continued almost without intermission until both were absorbed in the rising greatness of the Persian empire.

Neither the extent nor progress of the Dorian colonies could com

pare with those we have just described. Limited to a narrow and not very fruitful territory, their confederation always continued in a state of feebleness; and, with the exception of Halicarnas'sus, which, at a comparatively recent age, became the capital of an opulent monarchy, and the isle of Rhodes, whose daring navigators rivalled those of the most potent commercial states, there is scarcely a Dorian state that rose above mediocrity.

The DORIANS, after the conquest of the Peloponnésus, meditated new acquisitions; but, being checked by the Athenians at Meg'ara, they proceeded in detached bands to the coast of CARIA, and to the islands of Cos and Rhodes. It is impossible to assign the exact age of these migrations; but they were certainly later than the Ionian and Æolian; they appear also to have been conducted without any definite plan, and to have taken place at very different times. The six cities forming the Doric confederation, called Hexapolis, were Halicarnas'sus and Cnídus on the Carian peninsula, Cos in the island of the same name, and Halys'sus, Camírus, and Lin'dus, in the island of Rhodes.

The Dorians submitted without a struggle to the Persian power, and seem to have made no effort to regain their independence.

SECTION VIII.-The Greek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, the Coasts of Thrace, Macedon, &c.

Most of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Propon'tis, the Euxine sea, and the Pálus Mæótis, were founded by the citizens of Milétus between the eighth and sixth centuries before the Christian era. That city, whose commerce occupied four harbors, and whose naval power amounted to eighty or a hundred galleys of war, owed its greatness to its possession of the northern trade; and to secure this lucrative commerce, it planted several colonies, all of which became prosperous marts of trade. Their commerce was not confined to the seacoasts: their merchants penetrated into southern Russia, and advanced even beyond the Caspian to the countries which now form the kingdoms of Khíva and Bokhára. The Phocæans shared the honor of founding these important colonies; but they were too much devoted to the western trade to waste their energies on the northern; and it may be generally stated, that the settlements on the Euxine depended chiefly on Milétus.

On the Propon'tis adjoining the Hellespont, stood Lamp'sacus, originally founded by some Phocæans, who obtained a grant of the site of the city from one of the native princes whom they had assisted in war. It was afterward occupied by the Milesians, under whom it became a place of great wealth and extensive commerce.

Cyzicus, erected on an island joined by bridges to the Asiatic coast, was a very ancient city; it is said to have been colonized in the earliest ages by the Tyrrhenian Pelas'gi, and afterward by the Argonauts. About B. c. 751, it was occupied by the Milesians, who at the same time took possession of the neighboring island of Proconnésus (Marmora). Cyz'icus, in a late age, under the dominion of the Romans, became one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in Asia.

Opposite to Cyz'icus on the Thracian coast, was Perin'thus, at a la

ter age called Heracleía, founded by a Samian colony; on the European side of the Thracian Bosphorus was Byzan'tium (Constantinople); and over against it, on the Asiatic coast, Chal'cedon (Scutari), both colonized from Meg'ara.

The first Greek city on the Black sea was Heracleía, on the Bithynian coast, which appears to have been successively colonized from Meg'ara and Milétus.

Sinópe, in Paphlagonia, was the most powerful of the Greek states on the Euxine se a. Amísus,in Pon'tus, was, next to Sinópe, the best harbor on the Euxine sea. After having been long subject to Milétus, it was seized by the Athenians in the age of Per'icles, and its name changed to Peiræ'æus. During the days of its prosperity, Amísus is said to have become the parent of a colony that soon surpassed itself in importance, Trap'ezus (Trebisonde).

On the eastern coast of the Euxine were Phásis, Dioscúrias, and Phanagória. In the Macedonian age, Phanagória became the capital of the Greek cities on the Asiatic side of the Bos'phorus: its prosperity was owing to its being the chief mart for the slave-trade, which has always prevailed in the countries round the Caucasus, and also to its being the staple for the goods brought from central and southern Asia by the route of the Caspian sea and the Oxus.

The Milesians formed several establishments in the Tauric Chersonese (Criméa), and wrested the greater part of that peninsula from its barbarous inhabitants. The city of Panticape'um was the most important, and probably the most ancient, of these settlements. It became the capital of the little Greek kingdom of the Bos'phorus, and continued to maintain its independence until, in the Roman age, it was seized by Mithridátes the Great, who laid there the foundations of his subsequent power.

The coasts of Thrace and Macedon were covered with Greek colonies, principally derived from Corinth and Athens.

On the coasts of Africa was the celebrated Greek city of Cyréne, long the commercial rival of Carthage, founded by a Dorian colony from the island of Théra (B. c. 651), in obedience to the directions of the Delphic oracle. The government was at first monarchical, the crown being hereditary in the family of Bat'tus, the founder. About B. c. 450, royalty was abolished, and a republic formed; but the citizens of Cyréne never were able to form a permanent constitution; and their state continued to be rent by factions until it was annexed to the Egyptian kingdom, in the age of the Ptolemies.

The history of the Greek states in Sicily and southern Italy being closely connected with the Roman wars, will be found in the chapters on Italy.