have passed for anything in the world rather than for a guardsman. He was going in search of a feed of grass for his hungry animal, so we rode together, and near to the chapel of the monastery, where we heard the fine bass of the monks chaunting the service, and it was a very strange blending of sounds, their deep rich voices, with the boom of the siege guns thundering heavy shot into the midst of those, for whose safety these monks were praying. Yet such is war, which seems of all irrational things on this sad earth to be one of the most irrational, and what it really is can never be known by hearing and reading about it-its horrors, massacres, and atrocities must be seen, and whoever saw the six hundred slain-English, French, and Russians heaped together in the Redan trenches, or who happened to be in Sebastopol the morning after the retreat of the Russians, and seen the dead lying about all over the town, and in all the hospitals-whoever saw all this and a great deal besides, might well ask, "for what is all this slaughter?" No sight struck me more than that of a group of six dead Russian soldiers with their wounds freshly bandaged. In two cases the bandages had not been completed, while a little way off lay the shattered body of the young surgeon with his valise of bandage rolls and coarse lint, and in his left hand a loose bandage red with blood, while his right hand had been shot away. This group was close to a heavy gun, and it seemed that while their wounds were being dressed, a shell must have fallen among them and its explosion killed them all-the poor young surgeon also, while busy with his work sharing the fate of the men whose lives he was trying to save. There was hardly a house in the town not riddled with shot, and to give an idea of the immense quantity of these fired into the place—I counted not less than fifty lying on the floor of a church not larger than St. Stephen's at Westminster, the bell of this church had been shattered by a shot, and its fragments lay scattered about, and I brought away one of these with the intention of having a small bell cast from it, on which might be engraved a brief sad legend.

During our stay in the Black Sea, we took a cruize to Kertch and to Sinope. What struck us most at the former place was the wreck of the Museum, and at the latter place, the wreck of the Turkish fleet. Both of these tell very sad stories, one the rifling and barbarous destruction of a collection never to be replaced; the other, not of a naval battle, but of a slaughter not to be exceeded in inhumanity in the annals of any nation, savage or civilized. W. C. P.

THE discovery of tin, in large quantities, in the Dutch East Indies, has so reduced prices that the Cornwall mines of England can no longer be worked at a profit. Machinery recently put up at a cost of fifty thousand dollars has been sold for four thousand dollars. Seventyeight mines have been wound up compulsorily, and twenty thousand miners thrown out of employment.

CONSIDERATIONS of the winds, currents, and tides of the Gulf of Cadiz, and the Western Shore of the Spanish Peninsula, with the best points for making the coast from sea, and how it should be navigated.

(Concluded from page 665 last Volume.)

The Haze.-Hazy weather, which is some approach to fog, happily is never so obscure as this. It occurs generally in the season of heat, and with fresh N.E. winds is tolerably frequent on the coast of Galicia and Portugal.

In the Gulf of Cadiz in the summer time, especially with light southerly winds, a thick haze is seen on the horizon, and so much refraction is produced by it that it sometimes acts as a mirror. It changes in a remarkable degree the hulls of vessels and the forms of buildings near the sea, making the projecting points of the land appear as if they were in some way suspended above the water. Such effects of the haze are generally the forerunners of humid and still weather. Sometimes they foretell easterly winds, perhaps with something in

them.

In dry winters these parts are subject to thick fogs through which the coast cannot be seen excepting at a very short distance. It is however during the Vendaval that wet mists occur, which are worse than fogs; and indeed they prevail over all the coast under consideration. Navigators looking out for their landfalls under such unfavourable circumstances are often much perplexed to know their position, for then they can have no assistance from the features of the interior land. Even near the sea-coast it is so disfigured, that frequently towns and similar buildings have been mistaken for sails of ships; and then if the coast is fringed with outlying reefs of shallow approach, they run the risk of grounding unless some friendly breaker warns them of their danger.

Landfalls-On these coasts there are three very remarkable points for a landfall, and these are Cape Spartel, Cape St. Vincent, and Cape Villano or Finisterre. The first is always used by vessels bound to the Mediterranean and those coming from America, which run on some parallel southward of lat. 36°, on account of the northerly winds not allowing them to make Cape St. Vincent. The same landfall is made generally by other vessels from the westward, which have had to make northing whether bound to Cadiz or the Mediterranean; and those also from European ports to the northward make Cape Villano, whether they may be bound to any of the estuaries or ports of Galicia and Portugal, or Cadiz, or the Mediterranean.

Vessels bound to the Mediterranean, and running on the parallel of the Strait, should always make Cape Espartel their landfall in preference to Cape Trafalgar. Cape Espartel is high, bold, and conspicuous; Cape Trafalgar is low and surrounded by reefs, and when the vessel's position has not been confirmed by known points of the

land, the landfall which should be adopted ought always be conspicuous and bold, one that may be seen from a great distance also by night, and better if it should have a light, and can be approached without any risk.

Cape Trafalgar may be made by vessels bound to the Mediterranean that have already confirmed their position by seeing Cape St Vincent, Cape St. Mary, etc., and with N.E. winds, because it is then probable that the Levanter will be blowing violently in the Strait; and it is better that they should then keep the Spanish Coast on board.

Cape St. Vincent is generally preferred as a landfall on account of its conspicuous nature, as well as its freedom from rocks, and its projecting outside the line of coast which allows of vessels making it without being hampered by the shore north and south of it. Besides which it is admirably marked by the height of Monchique which can be seen at a great distance. But in time of war it has been avoided as a landfall because it has been infested by privateers and ships of the enemy.

Cape Villano is always preferable as a landfall to Cape Finisterre because it is high and projects out to the N. W., and therefore is always adopted by vessels from the English or St. George's Channels. These indeed generally avoid making Cape Prior that they may keep clear of the currents, and heavy seas and winds common to the N. W. face of the Peninsula. Villano is easy to make, not only on account of its advanced position outside of this coast, but also from its peculiar form. When made from afar it has the appearance of an old castle, the effect of a peak on its summit; and when seen isolated it assumes the appearance of a vessel rigged as a sloop or cutter. It is seen before Cape Tourinana, because it is higher and more remarkable, although it does not project so much.

The Cies Islands and Cape Le Roca.-Vessels from the westward bound to Lisbon or Vigo and confident of their reckoning have the Cies islands and Cape Roca as landfalls, both of which are easily made. Vessels bound to Oporto will have been careful of the shore unless certain of their reckoning, for this port being situated on ground of much sameness and uniformity it is not easy to recognise afar off, when the coast should not only be very clear but its configuration distinct.

All the points we have mentioned, being well suited for a landfall, are happily provided with excellent lights, which enable a vessel to approach them without a risk by night. The light however recently established on Cape Spartel has been the cause of a remarkable mistake. Three vessels coming from the westward made that Cape by night, their commanders being ignorant of a light having been placed there, mistook it for Tarifa, which has also a fixed white light, and they were consequently embayed and lost in Jeremias Bay; no doubt considering that bay to be the mouth of the Strait: two of these were English and one French. The light was established on the 15th of October, 1864. It would be desirable that some modification should be introduced into this light of Cape Spartel so that it could never be mistaken for that of Tarifa. It should not be forgotten that this light being

situated in an uncivilized country might be neglected to be lighted on some night (as will be remembered), and the navigator who under similar circumstances might make Cape Espartel, without seeing the light, might run into the same fatal error.

Making Cadiz.-A ship bound to Cadiz from America unable to make Cape St. Vincent, if her reckoning be good, might make the land somewhere of the bay. The elevated heights of San Cristoval and Ubrique, visible from a great distance in clear weather, are excellent marks for it. San Cristoval, known to navigators under the name of Cabeza del Moro, is 1755 metres (5758 feet) high, and may be seen from a vessel twenty-five to thirty miles from the bay. Neither of these heights can possibly be mistaken for any other, because they only are to be then seen above the horizon.

Coming from the Canaries a vessel may look out for Cadiz if her reckoning be good and she has favourable winds; but if these be to the southward of east, and an easterly wind be observed in the Strait, she ought to make for Cape Spartel, and get a fresh departure so as to make sure of Cadiz Bay. And should this be at night the lights of Cape Espartel and Trafalgar will be still more certain means of giving her her position and the proper course to be steered.

Making Cadiz in Hazy Weather.-It might happen that a vessel has hazy weather for making Cadiz, and yet she might clearly see the height of Beba and that of San Lucar not far from it. The first is a hill of gentle slope rising above the adjacent land, and is distinguished by a white house called Beba or Breba, situated three miles S. 62° E. of Chipiona, and is seen from the whole neighbourhood of Cadiz. A vessel situated a little north of its parallel would soon make out the ex-convent of Ragla, the town of Chipiona, and other buildings on the coast, the whiteness of which would render them visible in spite of the haze, should there be any.

If the hill should be so enveloped in haze that neither the small heights nor the buildings of the coast can be seen, the colour of the water near the shore will indicate its proximity to the seaman, and the lead will soon verify his position. At a distance of four to five leagues from Cadiz when from W.S. W. to S. of it he knows the soundings are clear sand, and if it be loose blackish clay he will be on the parallel of the bay.

NAVIGATION.-Vessels from the Strait of Gibraltar bound to Cadiz should keep the Spanish coast in hand, and may pass inside of the Aceitera rock, and even the Conil reefs if she have on board a pilot for their channels, and the vessel should be of the proper draft. The steamers which trade along the coast, can, and do adopt this navigation, for without losing any distance they are sheltered from the wind which about here blows with considerable violence.

The navigator, however, who has not sufficient experience should keep outside of all these dangers, especially if his vessel is large and has only sail. In such case it will be sufficient to keep at four miles from the coast, and bringing Cadiz light to be N. by E., should steer to the northward so that she should have the tower on her starboard hand,

and pass as near as safe to the reefs off point San Sebastian, so as to avail herself all she can of the wind on first standing into the bay.

Making Cadiz in an East Wind -Should the tide not answer, or if it be evident that on gaining San Sebastian point, the ebb will have made, (which is a point that should be studied beforehand,) the navigator must be contented to stand off and on between Cadiz and Cape Roche, where the wind will not be so strong as in the entrance of the bay, and as soon as he has reason to believe that the tide is making at Cadiz, he may run for the entrance of the bay with the view of taking the harbour.

He should endeavour always so to manage his boards as to be at the entrance of the channel by the time that the flood has gained its greatest strength, with the view of making the least possible number of boards. It would not be prudent to beat in against a headwind on an ebb tide unless at neaps, and even then not unless the vessel be a fast sailer.

If, on making Cape Trafalgar there is much ground sea, a vessel should not attempt to pass inside of the Aceitera and other dangers, she should rather increase her distance to five miles from the coast, as much for avoiding the streams of current off the Cape, as for keeping in depths of 15 to 18 fathoms: and when she has gained the meridian of Cadiz light she should steer so as to keep in depths in which the sea will not break, and edge as near as she can with safety to the reefs of San Sebastian, so as to gain all she can on her first reach into the bay.

Precautions on passing inside the Conil rocks. A vessel after having adopted the passage inside the reefs might desire to get outside of them, which she might do by passing between the Meca and Conil reefs, or between these and Cape Roche, taking care to determine her position well by good cross marks, so as to be able to select the proper course to take her mid-channel; and her captain bearing in mind that the flood tide always sets to the N.W.

If the ground swell is very heavy it will break on nearly all the rocks, and will run high in the channels, and therefore in such a case the navigator must not think of adopting the inner route.

When bound to Cadiz from the strait, and the ship is on the meridian of Cape Plata, the easterly wind will slacken and it may be observed that the westerly wind is blowing at sea. The vessel must

then keep on a southern parallel so as to be able to pass from ten to twelve miles from Cape Trafalgar, with the view that, when the westerly wind reaches her she may be able to stand on to the entrance of the bay.

Precautions in passing the Strait when bound to Cadiz. In winter time the same precaution must be observed coming from the Strait, but from another motive; since it frequently happens that, while there is a fresh easterly wind in the mouth of the Strait, the Vendaval will be prevailing to the westward. Hence the navigator on gaining the meridian of Tarifa finding the easterly wind veering to the southeast should keep towards the African shore; for he may be sure that