has worked its way down into the tongue and into the fingers, enabling one to speak well and write well, is what the pupil needs.

To the Teacher.-See to it, before you proceed, that the pupils understand what rhetoric is, and how it is related to kindred studies, and yet differs from them.

Allow us here, on the very threshold of the study, to say that a large part of the pupil's work in the preparation of his lessons will be composition. This is that to which everything else required will be made ancillary. Whatever, then, is slurred, do not allow this to be.

INVENTION.

LESSON 2.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

WHAT INVENTION IS. Thought is communicated by means of words. They are its instrument, its servant. The thought determines the expression—the worthy thought prompting to a worthy expression, the worthless thought allowing a poor expression. Both in time and in importance, then, the thought stands first. In rhetoric, to invent means to think. As a department of rhetoric,

Invention is that which treats of the finding of thought for single sentences, for continued discourse.

WHAT IT IS TO THINK, AND WHAT A THOUGHT IS.— By means of our bodily senses the mind comes face to face with the things of the outer world. Through the senses

the mind sees, hears, feels, tastes, and smells—in short, perceives. Through the senses it receives and brings into itself and stores away in the memory impressions, images, or pictures, of the things perceived. It gets these pictures, too, by reading, and by hearing people speak-the written or the oral word presenting these pictures to the mind. These impressions, or images, or pictures, of things we shall call ideas.

That the mind does receive and store away these ideas is proved by the fact that we can bring them up out of the memory, look at them with what we may call the "mind's eye," and through them perceive again, as it were, the things long ago seen, heard, felt, tasted, or smelt. This bringing up the ideas and through them. perceiving the things again is remembering, recollecting. And without the bodily senses the mind can perceive— it can perceive its own acts, facts, thoughts, feelings. These are already in the mind, and so need no bodily sense to bring them into it.

The things perceived stand in some relation to each other. They agree or they disagree with each other, and so the ideas we get of them through our senses

must.

To think is to detect an agreement or a disagreement between our mental pictures, or ideas, and to unite them. The result of these two acts of detecting and uniting is a thought. The writer or speaker detects this relation between his ideas, puts them together, and then expresses the result in words. In reading him or listening to him. we receive these ideas in the form of thought. By our own observation we get them as single and detached ideas. We can ourselves convert them into thought immediately, or can lay them away in memory, recall them at any time afterward, and fuse them into thought. Un

1

combined, they are

the raw material out of which thoughts are to be manufactured.

If these ideas are united in the relation which the things they picture actually hold to each other, the thought is true; if in some other relation, the thought is untrue or false. He who first detects the relation subsisting between certain ideas and unites them creates an absolutely original thought; if he is ignorant that another has done it before him, the thought is only original with himself.

A thought is produced by the fusion of at least two ideas. Birds fly = Birds are flying. Here the idea denoted by birds and that denoted by flying are brought together, and in the sentence are coupled by the copula are, and thus one is affirmed of the other. Birds, naming the things and our idea of the things of which something is to be affirmed, is the subject of the sentence; and are flying, denoting what is affirmed and affirming it, is the predicate.

A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound.

Other words may be brought into the sentence and grouped about the subject and the predicate. The words so used are adjectives expressing ideas (1) assumed; as, Industrious people can be found; and (2) asserted; as, The Chinese are industrious; are adverbs; as, The Gulf Stream flows rapidly; are nouns used as complements; as, Can I become an orator? Practice makes an orator, What orators practice has made some men! are nouns used as adjective modifiers, (1) possessive; as, Last came Joy's ecstatic trial; (2) explanatory; as, Henry VII. and Henry VIII., Tudors, preceded Edw. VI.; are words used independently; as, O Sir, can you help me?

Direction.-Write sentences illustrating all the points made above,

but use no words in other relations than those explained. In writing these sentences observe and illustrate the following rules for capital letters and for punctuation

* CAPITAL LETTERS.-Begin with a capital letter (1) the first word of a sentence, and (2) of a line of poetry; (3) proper names and words derived from them, (4) names of things personified, and (5) most abbreviations; and write in capital letters (6) the words I and O, and (7) numbers in the Roman notation.

THE PERIOD.—Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman notation.

THE COMMA. Set off by the comma (1) an explanatory modifier which does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (2) a word or phrase independent or nearly so.

THE APOSTROPHE.-Use the apostrophe (1) to distinguish the possessive from other cases.

THE INTERROGATION POINT.-Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point.

THE EXCLAMATION POINT.-All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point.

* The rules given in this book for capital letters and for punctuation are taken from Reed & Kellogg's "Higher Lessons in English," where, especially under Composition, they are given and fully illustrated. The teacher cannot be too thorough in his drill upon them. Punctuation is as much a part of a sentence as any word in it. The teacher should insist that no sentence is really written until it is properly punctuated.

Some of the definitions are taken from the same work.

LESSON 3.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

A noun or pronoun with its preposition, forming a prepositional phrase, may be brought into the sentence and perform the office of (1) an adjective modifier; as, Vibrations of ether cause light; or (2) an adverb modifier; as, At Yorktown, the Revolution ended. Without its preposition the noun may be used adverbially and become (1) a so-called dative object; as, Hull refused Charles I. admittance; and (2) a noun of measure or direction; as, He returned home.

An infinitive phrase, to with its verb, may be brought into the sentence, and become (1) a subject; as, To err is human; (2) a complement; as, The command is to forgive, The Bible teaches us to forgive, The teacher made the pupil (to) forgive; (3) an adjective modifier; as, The way to be forgiven is revealed; (4) an explanatory modifier; as, This duty, to obey, is recognized; (5) an adverb modifier; as, Strive to do your duty; (6) the principal term of another phrase; as, He was about to speak; and (7) it may be independent; as, To tell the truth, he haunted counting-rooms.

A participle may be brought into the sentence, and become (1) an adjective modifier; as, Air, expanding, rises ; (2) a complement; as, The gladiator lay bleeding, Mirza saw people crossing the bridge; (3) the principal word of a prepositional phrase; as, By losing its privacy, benevolence loses its charm; (4) the principal word in a phrase used as subject; as, Casting out the 9's will prove the operation; (5) the principal word in a phrase used as complement; as, Pardon my forgetting your request; and (6)