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The Menai bridge.

The project of a bridge across the Menai Strait was suggested as early as 1785, and in 1801, designs were made by Rennie for such a purpose. Some years later, the matter was again taken up, and Telford prepared two different designs, one for a bridge of cast iron arches, and another to which he gave the preference, for a single arch of 500 feet, at Ynys-y-moch, where he was eventually, in 1818, directed to construct a suspension bridge, similar in principle, to the one which he had proposed to erect a few years before over the Mersey, at Runcorn Gap; this was completed in 1826. The progress of industry from this period is remarkable. Immense sums have been expended in useful contrivances to endeavour to facilitate the intercourse of the people; and in all these, nearly the whole has been spent in labour, or in the encouragement of mechanical ingenuity, such as no nation in the world can boast of beside. The innumerable buildings for commerce and for convenience, surpass even the castles of the ancient nobility, or any of the immense piles in foreign countries, whose only beauty is their ancient forms of prison-like extension.

Rapid as has been the invention of rail-roads in this country, they are really insignificant compared with their extension in America, and the schemes on foot on the continent and Russia, and by various other governments. Several extensive lines have been completed in various parts of the Union, those as well as these now in progress are all state undertakings, amounting to about 1,600 miles in length, they having cost on the aggregate 30 millions of dollars.

Our legislation as to railways and most other descriptions of public works, appears to be as defective as can well be imagined. It is, and must be admitted no easy matter to decide how far au interference with private property should be carried in such cases, and where it should stop. At present, the practice is for a railway act to authorize the company in whose favour it is granted, to charge certain rates of toll on the passengers and goods, not for any specified time, but continually! It is no difficult matter to observe that in case of a second line being proposed and undertaken to check this, which may be made a species of monopoly, and would be ruinous to overcome whatever might be the chances if success on the beginning. The fair presumption is, that most lines of roads will be exceedingly productive, by the increase of population, and the manufactures and commerce of the people. Instances of example in various parts of the kingdom, where private or public companies have been allowed to erect bridges and roads, for the public use, by the payment of a toll which at first appeared remarkably reasonable and small, are numerous; but by the increase of population and commerce, this has become a heavy tax on the public :-for example, The Laira and the Stonehouse Bridges were erected by private persons to supplant the use of ferries; the latter now pays an enormous yearly revenue, enough to build the bridge. Its value was rated at £40,000, when the proprietor was applied to, to throw it open to the public.

Nature of commerce.

CHAP. XIX.

COMMERCE.

The nature of commerce-Mercantile operations-The merchant the middle man between the grower and consumer-Folly and unprofitableness of multiplicity of engagements by one individual—Division of labour expedites production, becomes profitable-Opulence and comfort produced by cominerce -Nature of monopolies Their injustice, and effects-The monopoly of bibles-Competition fosters commerce, promotes national affinity.

ALTHOUGH the origin of commerce is coeval with the first dawn of civilization, the moment that individuals ceased to supply themselves directly with various articles and accommodation, they began to apply themselves to social intercourse and commercial enterprize grew up amongst them; for it is only by exchanging that superfluous portion of produce raised by themselves, that exceeds their own consumption, for such portions of the surplus raised by others, that the division of employments can be introduced; or that different individuals can apply themselves in preference to different pursuits. Not only does commerce enable the inhabitants of the same village or parish to combine their separate efforts t accomplish some common object, but it also enables those of different provinces or kingdoms to apply themselves in an especial manner to those callings for the successful prosecution of which the districts or country which they occupy give them some pecu No. 10.

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Commerce promotes civilization.

liar advantage. The territorial division of labour has contributed more than anything else to increase the wealth and accelerate the civilization of mankind; were it not for it, we should be destitute of a great number of the necessary comforts and enjoyments which we now possess, and the prices of the few that should remain would in most instances be very greatly increased, while the exchange of different products is carried on by the producers themselves, they must unavoidably lose a great deal of time and experience many inconveniences. Were there no merchants, a farmer wishing to till his crop would be obliged, in the first place, to seek for customers, and to dispose of his corn as nearly as possible in such quantities as might suit the demands of the various individuals inclined to purchase, and after getting its price, he would next be obliged to send to various different remote places for the commodities required in its stead, besides being exposed to an immense deal of trouble and inconvenience, whereby his attention would be continually directed from the labour of his farm. The establishment of a distinct mercantile class effectually obviates these inconveniences. When a set of dealers erect warehouses and shops for the purchase and sale of all descriptions of commodities, every producer is relieved from the necessity of seeking customers, and knowing beforehand where he may at alltimes be supplied with products he may require, devotes his whole time and energy to his proper business. The intervention of merchants gives a continuous and uninterrupted mo

Importance of merchants.

tion to the plough and the loom; were this class of traders annihilated, all the springs of industry would be paralyzed. The numberless difficulties arising in affecting exchanges, would lead each particular family to endeavour to produce all the articles they had occasion for : society would be thus thrown back into primeval barbarism and ignorance; the divisions of labour would be relinquished, and the desire to rise in the world, and improve our condition would decline according as it became more difficult to gratify.

What sort of agricultural management could be expected from farmers who had to manufacture their own wool and make their own shoes; and what sort of manufacturers could they be who were every now and then obliged to leave the shuttle for the plough, or the needle for the anvil? A society without that distinction of employments and professions resulting from a division of labour, that is without commerce, would be totally destitute of arts or sciences of any sort. It is by the assistance each individual renders to and receives from his neighbours, by every one applying himself in preference to some peculiar task, and combining, though probably without intending it, his efforts with those of others, that civilized man becomes equal to the most gigantic efforts. The mercantile class may be divided into the wholesale and retail dealers; if the wholesale merchant were himself to retail the goods he has brought from different places, he would require a proportionate larger capital, and it would be impossible for him to give that exclusive attention to any department of his business which is indispensible to its being carried on in the best manner. It is for the interest of each dealer, as of each workman, to confine himself to some one business; by this means each trade is best understood, better cultivated, and carried on the cheapest possible manner. But whether carried on by a separate class or not, it is obvious that retailing of commodities is indispensible. It is not enough that a cargo of tea should be imported from China, or a cargo of sugar from Jamaica; most individuals have some demand for these articles, but there is not a single private person even in London, requiring so large a supply for his own consumption; it is clear, therefore, that it must be retailed, that is, it must be sold in such quantities as may be most suitable for all classes of customers. The observations already made serve to shew the influence of trade on the various individuals of a prosperous state, but it is not in this respect only that the establishment of trade is advantageous. It is still so in a greater degree by its

Commerce produces opulence.

allowing the inhabitants of the various districts of the empire to turn their labour into those channels in which it will be most productive. The different soils, the different climates of various districts, fit them for being appropriated in preference to certain species of industry; a district where coal is abundant, with an easy access to the ocean, and a considerable command of internal navigation, is the natural seat of manufactures. Wheat and other species of grain are the natural products of rich arable soils; and cattle, after being reared in mountainous districts are most advantageously fattened in meadows and low grounds. Hence, it follows that the inhabitants of different places, by confining themselves to those branches of industry, for the successful prosecution of which they have some peculiar capability, and exchanging their surplus produce for that of others, will obtain a larger supply of all sorts of the useful and desirable products than they could do, were they to apply themselves indiscriminately to every different business. The territorial division of labour is even more advantageous than its division among individuals. Hence it is, that the inhabitants of the richest and most extensive country, provided it were divided into small districts, without any intercourse with each other, or with foreigners, could not, how well-soever labour might be divided amongst themselves, be otherwise than poor and miserable; some of them might have a superabundance of corn, at the same time they must be wholly destitute of wine, coal, and iron, while others may have the largest supply of the latter articles with but little grain.

In commercial countries, no such anomalies can exist opulence and comfort are there universally diffused, and the labours of the mercantile class enable the inhabitants of each district to apply themselves principally to those engagements that are naturally best suited to them. Thus the benefits of commerce enable every individual to avail himself to the utmost of the peculiar advantages of his situation, to work on the materials with which nature has furnished him, to humour his disposition, and betake himself to the task in which he is peculiarly qualified to succeed. The inhabitant of the mountains may interest himself in the care of the woods, and his timber, and his flocks of sheep; the owner of the pastures and meadows may take himself to the care

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