held that office till his death in 1872. Señor Lerdo de Tejada then became president. In 1873 important reforms took place in respect to emancipating altogether civil matters from religious intervention, a change which augured well for future quietude, since in Mexico, as in the South American republics, priestly interference had been a prolific source of political dissensions.

The isthmus of Central America, meantime, has been partitioned into the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. All that remains to Spain of her once famous empire in the Indies are the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, and the former of these is so torn by dissensions between a republican party, which sustains a precarious existence in the interior, and a high-handed military government in the capital (Havana) and the western coast, that the retention of the sovereignty of this island can only be considered a question of time. A serious dispute occurred between Spain and the United States in 1873, in consequence of the seizure of the 'Virginius,' a vessel loaded with armaments for the use of the Cuban insurgents. A large part of the crew, consisting of English and American subjects, was summarily put to death, and hostilities were only averted by the surrender of the vessel to the United States.

Of the other larger West Indian islands, Jamaica remains an English possession, under a governor appointed by the crown. An account of an insurrection, fortunately suppressed at the outset, is given at pp. 473-4.

San Domingo was formerly in the hands partly of the French and partly of the Spaniards; but the great majority of the inhabitants of the island are negroes, and during the French revolution an able negro, named Louverture, instigated an insurrection, and established a native government. Great efforts were made by Bonaparte in 1802 to recover possession of it; but after fearful scenes of violence and bloodshed, the effort was finally abandoned, and the island has since remained a black republic.

XXIX.-The British Empire in India.

In 1846 India was the scene of war. Sir Harry Smith, advancing up the Sutlej against the Sikhs, commanding an army of 12,000 men, with 32 guns, encountered the enemy with double the force in men and artillery, commanded by the Sirdar Runjoor Singh. A victory was

gained by our troops with great slaughter of the enemy, many of whom were drowned in attempting to recross the river. The battle is known as that of Aliwal, a village in the neighbourhood. Shortly afterwards sir Hugh (afterwards lord) Gough attacked their force of 35,000 men in an entrenched camp at Sobraon, on the Sutlej. After an obstinate resistance the enemy's batteries were taken and the scene of the defeat at Aliwal acted over again. Dhuleep Singh, the maharajah of Lahore, the capital of the Punjaub, who was then a child, having made his submission to the governor-general, was reinstated in his capital as a tributary chief.

In 1847 advices from India reported that matters were not so settled as could be desired at Lahore, and that it had been found necessary to depose the vizier Lall Singh for treasonable correspondence with some insurgents in Cashmere, which province had been made over by the British to Gholab Singh. At the request of the Sikhs themselves a force of 10,000 was left at Lahore, though the time had arrived for the withdrawal of the British occupation. In the same year earl Dalhousie succeeded sir H. Hardinge as governor-general. The Punjaub, however, did not remain tranquil. In 1848 there was an insurrection in Mooltan, where the native governor, Moolraj, connived at the murder of Mr. Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, two English officers. General Whish besieged the town with a force partly of natives, who deserted to the insurgents, and the siege was raised. Lord Gough collected a large force, and met the enemy at Ramnuggur, in a skirmish which was as disastrous as it was ineffectual. Mooltan was again besieged and at last stormed. A subaltern, afterwards sir H. Edwardes, greatly distinguished himself in these operations. In 1849 lord Gough defeated the Sikhs in the great battle of Chillianwallah. "The enemy rallied and attacked the British force at Goojerat, on the right bank of the Chenaub, and were completely routed, leaving the greater part of their artillery and their camp in the hands of the victors. Soon afterwards sir Charles Napier was appointed commander-in-chief in India. On the retirement of the maharajah to Poonah, on a pension of £40,000 a year, the territory of the Punjaub was finally annexed to the British empire.

The next event of importance was in 1852, which opened with war in Burmah. The viceroy of Rangoon had

forbidden communication between the shore and the British vessels lying in the harbour, and even went so far as to erect stockades and batteries for the detention of the ships. The British commodore blockaded the mouth of the river Irawaddy, and destroyed the batteries, forcing the passage of the river. After some fighting, the details of which hardly deserve special mention, the extensive province of Pegu, in Burmah, was, by a decree of the governor-general of India, in 1853, annexed to the British empire. Lord Dalhousie continued to administrate till the beginning of 1856. Almost his last act was the annexation of the kingdom of Oude-a step necessitated by its continued misgovernment. He reached home with health shattered by excessive devotion to the public service, and died shortly afterwards. Lord Canning was the next governor-general. His first act was to declare war with Persia on account of their encroachment in Affghanistan in violation of a treaty with Great Britain. The war was successfully brought to an end the next year.

The year 1857 witnessed an event which, though disastrous and horrible in its details, has in its results and lessons been of profound importance in the history of the British rule in India. At the commencement of the year the empire was apparently in a state of complete tranquillity, but those who were best acquainted with the character and present feelings of the Bengal native army knew that there were elements smouldering which might at any moment burst out into flames. The kingdom of Oude had been annexed without open disturbance, but with much smothered discontent and misgiving. The large proportion of the sepoys, or native soldiery, were of that kingdom. Many were Brahmins of high caste, and jealous of anything that might tend to deprive them of their superiority. The total number of the native troops employed in the three presidencies amounted to 300,000, while that of the European troops was only 43,500, of which 5,200 were at this time in Persia. At the same time it was known that British troops were on their way to China. A large supply of Enfield rifles had been sent out from England, of which the cartridges were made up with greased paper. This grease was supposed to be a mixture of cows' fat and hogs' lard, though it was in fact composed of mutton fat and wax. This gave offence to the Hindoo and Mahometan population, into which the inhabitants of

Hindostan are divided, the former regarding the cow with veneration and the latter the swine with abhorrence. Stories were also circulated, probably by leaders in the impending movement, that the flour supplied was adulterated with the dust of cows' bones ground. A belief prevailed that the Europeans designed by any means to destroy all difference of "caste." Shortly before the mutiny broke out, it was observed that small cakes, called " chupattees," were mysteriously circulated amongst the native population, who, it is believed, were thus informed of the time of rising being at hand. In January of this year the ill-feeling began to show itself. At Barrack poor, on the Hoogly, about fifteen miles above Calcutta, furtive acts of incendiarism were committed. At Berhampoor, higher up the river, near Moorshedabad, a regiment of native infantry held a parade on their own authority, and when ordered to pile arms and disperse refused to do so, except on the condition of the troops being withdrawn that had been called out against them. Colonel Mitchell was censured and suspended for submitting to this compromise. This regiment of native infantry were marched down to Barrack poor and disbanded. The feelings of disaffection against the British government were aggravated by emissaries, who persuaded both Hindoos and Mahometans that it was the purpose of their rulers to abolish the caste of the former and the entire religion of the latter. At Lucknow, on the 3rd of May, the 7th regiment of irregular infantry broke into mutiny on being offered the cartridges, and threatened to shoot one of the European officers. The mutiny was suppressed by the Queen's 32nd regiment and the artillery, but the regiment was not disarmed. On the 6th of May the 34th regiment of native infantry was disbanded at Barrack poor by order of the governor-general. A more dreadful outbreak commenced at Meerut, an important station between the Ganges and the Jumna, 38 miles north-east of the city of Delhi. When the cartridges, which to avoid giving offence had been made on purpose, were offered to the native cavalry, 85 of the troopers refused them. They were put in irons and sent to gaol. On the 10th the flame burst forth. It was on Sunday evening, when many of the Europeans were at church, that the two regiments of native infantry assembled on the paradeground, shot some, and wounded others of the European officers, set fire to the cantonment, and, being joined by the native cavalry, began to massacre every European

of both sexes and all ages who came in their way. The main body of the mutineers then marched off to Delhi. They were admitted within the palace of the king, whence they soon afterwards issued, and began to murder the European residents in the city. The great town of Delhi was not garrisoned by Europeans. The 54th native infantry, sent to quell the mutiny, shot their European officers. Lieutenant Willoughby, who had charge of the magazine, with Lieutenant Forrest and three or four subalterns, kept off the mutineers by firing upon them with grape shot, and when the sepoys scaled the walls of the magazine, fired the train which he had laid in communication with the central depôt and blew several hundreds of them to pieces. Willoughby was never seen again. Forrest and the rest escaped from Delhi and reached Meerut in safety, and several residents effected their escape while the mutineers were employed in plundering the treasury. The king of Delhi, the successor of the old Moguls, himself eighty years of age, fomented the insurrection. In a few days not a single European was alive within the walls of Delhi. Happily electric wires had been extended across Hindustan, from Calcutta to Lahore, with branch lines to the principal military stores. In a few hours the intelligence of the revolt at Meerut, and the occupation of Delhi was flashed along the lines. In the absence of sir John Lawrence, the chief commissioner of the Punjaub, at Rawul Pindee, the judicial commissioner, Mr. Robert Montgomery, acted with energy and promptitude. At his request the 81st Queen's infantry, with two troops of the company's horse artillery, under brigadier Corbett, were ordered out to parade at Meean Meer, five or six miles from Lahore, when, by a preconcerted military movement, the heads of the four columns of native troops on parade with them were brought opposite to a field battery of twelve guns charged with grape, the artillerymen with their portfires lighted, and the queen's soldiers standing behind with muskets loaded and presented. They were ordered to pile arms under penalty of immediate destruction. The 45th native infantry at Ferozepoor broke out into mutiny, a station which contained very large supplies of military stores. They were repulsed, and the magazine saved by brigadier Jones. Meanwhile active efforts were made to resist the imminent insurrection. Sir John Lawrence and the officers, civil and military, lost no time in raising levies from the hill tribes. The governo