1760, in the 77th year of his age and the 34th of his reign. The immediate cause of his death was a rupture of the right ventricle of the heart. 12. This monarch was possessed of no shining abilities; he was partial to war, violent in his temper, parsimonious to a fault, and much attached to his German dominions; but he was plain and direct in his intentions, true to his word, and steady in his favour and protection to his servants, not parting even with his ministers till compelled to it by the violence of faction. V. Of the Seven Years' War, 1755—1762. 1. Though for some time after the peace of Aix-laChapelle, hostilities were suspended in Europe, the flame of war still raged in America and Asia. France, jealous of England's preponderating force at sea, energetically commenced rebuilding her fleet, which had been so utterly annihilated by the British in the late war. 2. It had long been the policy of France to endeavou to dispossess England of her principal settlements in the East Indies and America; many circumstances now conspired which seemed to favour her schemes. In the East Indies, the invasion of Kouli-Khan, the king of Persia, (in 1738), had irrevocably shaken the power of the mogul, from which time the viceroys and other subordinate governors had slighted his authority, and in a greater or less degree become independent. Disputes frequently arose between these petty princes, and one of the parties would generally solicit the aid of the French, who were remunerated on every such occasion by fresh cession of territory. This aroused the jealousy of the English, who naturally adopted the same line of policy, so that whenever there was a rupture between the native princes or nabobs, they each found allies in the European settlers. In 1751, a fierce contest arose between Chundah Sahib and Mohammed Ali, for the nabobship of the Carnatic. France espoused the cause of the former, England supported the latter; thus the two rival nations of Europe were brought into a state of hostility, not as avowed principals, but as the auxiliaries of the Indian nabobs. 3. It was at this period that the celebrated Mr. Clive, afterwards lord Clive, first distinguished himself. He had not only discernment enough to see through and detect all the designs and artifices of the French governor, Du pleix, the enterprising author and fomenter of all the troubles, but, though not brought up to the military profession, soon proved himself more than a match for all the talents that were brought into play against him. With a small force he took Arcot, and he afterwards successfully defended it against Chundah Sauib, who besieged it with a powerful army. Many brilliant victories followed on the side of the English and their allies; the French were baffled in all their projects, most of their possessions taken from them; Mohammed Ali's claims were acknowledged; Dupleix was recalled, and a suspension of arms was agreed upon, 1754. 4. In America, the boundaries of the British and French colonies still remained undefined. The French colonists were united both in their object and operations, while the English were so divided by disagreements and differences, as to render it, at least for a time, impossible for them to act in concert, however necessary to their best interests. Under these circumstances the French endeavoured to connect, by a chain of forts, their two distant colonies of Canada and Louisiana, and to confine the English entirely within that track of country which lies between the Alleghany and Apalachian mountains and the sea. These schemes could not be carried out without palpable encroachment on territories previously appropriated to others. England was not backward in her endeavours to thwart the designs of France. She now resorted to open force and captured several merchantmen and two ships of the line as reprisals, 1755. 5. In May, 1756, England declared war against France, which was carried on with various successes by the rival powers, who were severally assisted by different tribes of Indians. During this war many acts of cruelty were perpetrated by both nations; and while the English writers attribute the whole war to the intrigues and encroachments of the French, the latter as confidently ascribed it to the cupidity and aggressions of the English. Though at the commencement of the war, France gained several victories on land, her losses at sea were extremely great; before the contest had lasted a year, no less than 300 merchant-vessels, many of them richly laden, had been captured by the English. 6. A European war was the inevitable consequence of these proceedings, and from the term of its duration, it obtained the name of the seven years' war. Though Austria was bound by treaty to assist England in case of an attack, she now joined France, and through the aid of Russia, assiduously endeavoured to recover Silesia and Glatz, which had been ceded to Prussia, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 7. England now leagued with Prussia, which gave such offence to the czarina, who personally disliked the Prussian monarch, as quickly to bring about a union of Russia, Austria, and France. In addition to these, the German empire was induced by the influence of Austria, and Sweden by that of France, to join the coalition, and thus more than half of Europe were arrayed, not so much against England, or even the kingdom of Prussia, as against Frederic himself. 8. In 1757, the whole vengeance of France and her allies was directed against Hanover, and the king of Prussia. Frederic, with his characteristic boldness, anticipated their attack, and at the very onset, dispossessed the king of Poland, elector of Saxony, of his capital, his whole army, and his electoral dominions. This sudden manoeuvre much discomforted the court of Versailles, the life of the dauphiness, daughter of the king of Poland, having been endangered by the intelligence received of the misfortunes of her royal parents. 9. Perhaps the whole circle of history nowhere displays a spectacle more instructive as respects military tactics, than the conduct of the seven years' war by Frederic. The rapidity of his motions were beyond all example; undaunted by danger and misfortune, he frequently extricated himself from apparently overwhelming disasters, he found means to humble all the powers that menaced him, and he defended himself with surprising success in Silesia, Saxony, Brandenbourg, Hanover, and Westphalia, against the armies of the empire, Austria, Russia, France, Sweden, and Saxony. Had he been as humane as he was brave, his military character would have been perhaps unparalleled. The bloodshed that took place during this war is truly horrifying, no less than 200,000 men fell annually. 10. For some time Frederic's allies rather embarrassed than assisted his operation; 38,000 Hanoverians and Hessians, under the command of the duke of Cumberland, had been reduced, though neither beaten nor disarmed, to a state of inactivity, and Hanover, after a sharp contest, in which the French had the advantage, given up to the enemy, by a convention, the most singular upon record, signed at Closter-seven September 8th, 1757, entirely at the instance of the regent, which so offended the royal duke, that he immediately resigned his command. This convention was exceedingly humiliating to England, and proved almost a fatal blow to the king of Prussia. 11. Much of the renewed activity of the British, contributed little or nothing to their glory or advantage. By the desire of Mr. Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, incursions were made on the coast of France. The only advantages that were gained by these expeditions, after much bloodshed and a great outlay of money, was the demolition of the works at Cherburg and the capture of Belle Isle, which was of use afterwards, as an exchange for Mi norca. 12. England had liberally subsidised her allies on the continent; she had been eminently successful in America, Asia, and Africa, and her formidable navy had borne down all before it on the ocean. France had the mortification to behold for a second time her fleet almost annihilated, her commerce destroyed, her colonies in the East and West Indies captured by the British, and even Canada completely subdued by the armies under the command of Wolfe, Townshend, Monckton, Murray and Amherst, who displayed unparalleled zeal and valour in the capture of the towns of Quebec and Montreal. 13. In Europe, though prince Ferdinand, who now commanded the allied army, had driven the French back and compelled them to evacuate Hanover, Brunswick and Bremen, it was doubted whether his forces would be sufficient to maintain these advantages. But the genius of this prince surmounted every difficulty: he compelled the French to come to an engagement under circumstances peculiarly favourable to the allied armies, and the battle of Minden, which took place August 1st, 1759, effectually relieved Hanover and the greater part of Westphalia from the presence of the French. 14. On the 10th of August, 1759, Ferdinand VI. of Spain died, and was succeeded by his brother Don Carlos, king of the two Sicilies, under the title of Charles III. According to the terms of Aix-la-Chapelle, Don Philip should have surrendered Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, to Austria and Sardinia, and removed to Naples, (supra, part iii., sec. 3, § 15.) But as Charles III. had never acceded to that treaty, he left the crown of the two Sicilies to his third son, Ferdinand; and Don Philip agreed, and was allowed by Austria to retain the three duchies. 15. In 1761, a family compact was concluded between the courts of Versailles and Madrid; and seeing no chance of gaining colonial advantages over England, they resolved to try their united strength in attempting the subjugation of her ancient ally, Portugal. Joseph strenuously resisted the terms dictated to him by the combined monarchs. He applied to England for assistance, and her help came so opportunely, that though the Spaniards had passed the frontiers, and had actually taken several towns, they were now compelled to evacuate the kingdom with great loss. 16. In Germany, prince Ferdinand and the marquis of Granby protected Hanover, and recovered the greater part of Hesse. At the same time the king of Prussia, who had been brought to the verge of ruin, experienced a stroke of good fortune. The empress Elizabeth of Russia died, and Peter III., who had long admired the heroic king, had no sooner ascended the throne, than he made peace with him, and restored all the conquests of the Russians. From that time Frederick was not only able to concentrate his whole force against the Austrians, but was supported by Peter, who concluded an alliance with him, and dispatched to his aid an army of 20,000 men. The reign of Peter III., in consequence of his too extensive plans of reform, was of very short duration; and though his successor, Catherine II., recalled the auxiliary Russians from the Prussian army, her opposition to Frederic was but slight, and soon terminated in a treaty of peace, in which she was followed by Sweden. During this time the English were extending their conquests in the East Indies. They took Havannah and Manilla from the Spaniards, and St. Vincent, Grenada, and St. Lucia from the French. 17. The war was now carried on with less spirit than before. Both sides were exhausted with previous efforts; and France and Spain, whose whole colonies were threatened with ruin, were evidently only waiting till England would consent to stop in her career of victory, to propose terms of peace. A change of ministry however laid the foundation for such measures. In 1761 |