revived the taste for the Greek philosophy, and left behind them many able disciples, who publicly taught their doctrines.

2. It was natural that those symptoms should be most generally adopted which were most suitable to the national character. While the manners of the Romans had yet a tincture of ancient severity, the Stoical system prevailed. Scipio, Lælius, and the younger Cato rank among its chief partisans.

3. The philosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the age of Cicero. Cratippus and Tyrannion* then taught his system with great reputation. Yet Cicero complains that the Peripatetic philosophy was little understood at Rome; and; on that account, sent his son to study its doctrines in the schools of Athens.

4. Lucullus, whose stay in Greece gave him an opportunity of being acquainted with all the different sects, disseminated, on his return to Rome, a very general taste for philosophy. His patronage of learned men, and his liberality in allowing his library to be open for the public use, contributed greatly to the promotion of literature.

5. The old and new academy had each its partisans. Of the former, which may be termed the Stoico-platonic, the most illustrious disciples were Marcus Brutus and Terentius Varro. To the philosophical talents of Brutus, and the universal erudition of Varro, the writings of Cicero bear the most ample testimony. Cicero himself must be deemed the most eminent of all the Roman philosophers. He is classed among the principal supporters of the new academy; though it seems rather to have been his purpose to elucidate the Greek philosophy in general, than to rank himself among the disciples of any particular sect.

6. The cultivation of physics, or natural philosophy, seems to have been little attended to either by the Greeks or Romans. Unless agriculture should be classed under this description, we know of no Roman authors, except Varro and the elder Pliny, who seem to have bestowed much attention on the operations of nature. The works of the former have perished, except a few fragments; but the natural history of Pliny is a most valuable storehouse of the knowledge of the ancients in physics, œconomics,

• Known also as Theophrastus.—ED.

and the arts and sciences. It is to be regretted that the style is unsuitable to the matter, being too frequently florid, declamatory, and obscure.

7. The philosophy of Epicurus was unknown in the early ages of the Roman commonwealth. It was introduced with luxury, and kept pace in its advancement with the corruption of manners. Cineas having discoursed on the tenets of Epicurus at the table of Pyrrhus, Fabricius exclaimed, May the enemies of Rome ever entertain such principles! Yet these principles were, in a short time from that period, but too current among her own citizens.

XXXVIII. Of the Public and Private Manners of the Romans.

1. The manners of the Romans in the early ages of the republic were so different from those of the latter times, that one would be led to suppose some very extraordinary causes to have co-operated to produce so remarkable a change: yet the transition is to be accounted for. A spirit of temperance, frugality, and probity, is the characteristic of every infant establishment. A virtuous simplicity of manners, and a rigour of military discipline, paved the way for the extension of the Roman arms, and for their prodigious conquests: these conquests introduced wealth, luxury, and corruption.

2. In the early times, the patricians, when in the country, forgot the distinction of ranks, and laboured in the cultivation of their fields, like the meanest plebeians. We have the examples of Cincinnatus, Curius, the elder Cato, and Scipio Africanus. The town was visited only every ninth or market-day. In those times of virtuous simplicity, says Sallust, "good manners were cultivated both at home and in war.-) -By courage in war and equity in peace, they provided for the safety of themselves and the state." But when, in consequence of this very discipline and these manuers, the Romans had extended their dominion, they imported with the wealth of the conquered nations, their tastes, their manners, and their vices.

3. The Romans had no natural taste for the fine arts. On the conquest of Greece, an immense field opened at once to their eyes, and the master-pieces of art poured in upon them in abundance But their excellencies they could not appreciate Roman luxury, so far as the

The

arts were concerned, was in general displayed in an awkward, heavy, and tasteless magnificence.

4. The public and private life of the Romans will be best elucidated by a short account of the manner in which the day was passed at Rome, both by the higher and lower ranks of the people.* The morning hours were spent by a part of the citizens in visiting the temples; by others in attending the levees of the great. The clients waited on their patroni; the patricians visited each other, or paid their compliments to the leaders of the republic. Popularity was always the first object of ambition at Rome, as paving the way to all advancement. From the levee they proceeded to the forum, either to assist in the public business, or for amusement. There the time was spent till noon, the hour of dinner among the Romans, chiefly a very light repast, and of which it was not customary to invite any guests to partake. After dinner the youth repaired to the Campus Martius, where they occupied themselves in athletic exercises and sports till sunset. The elder class retired for an hour to repose, and then passed the afternoon in their porticoes, galleries, or libraries, where they enjoyed the conversation of their friends, or heard recitations of literary works: others repaired to the theatres, or to the shows of the circus and amphitheatre.

5. Combats of gladiators were introduced for the first time about the 490th year of the city, and soon became a most favourite amusement, as did the combats with wild beasts. The spirit of luxury, which in general is not unfavourable to humanity, showed its progress among the Romans by an increasing ferocity and inhumanity of the public spectacles. Theatrical entertainments were in high request. See supra, sect. 36. § 2—6. The taste for pantomime came to such a height, that the art was taught in public schools, and the nobility and people were divided into parties in favour of the rival performers: an abuse which called at length for the interposition of the laws.

6. From the porticoes, or from the theatre and amphitheatre, it was customary to go to the baths, of which there were many for the use of the public, while the rich had

It is a curious fact, that for a period of nearly 500 years, the Romans, ignorant of the mode of dividing the day into hours, knew no other distinction but that of morning, noon, and evening. Pliny informs us that sun-dials were first used about the 477th year of Rome; and it was nearly a century later when Scipio Nasica introduced the water clock.-ED.

them in their own houses, vying with each other in this as in every other article of luxury or magnificence. From the bath they went immediately to supper, generally about the ninth or tenth hour, counting from sunrise. At table they reclined on couches. The luxury of the Roman suppers far exceeded every thing known among the moderns. An antecœnium of pickles and spices was presented to prepare and sharpen the appetite. Cookery became a science. The number and costliness of the dishes were incredible. The entertainment was heightened by every thing gratifying to the senses; by male and female dancers, musicians, partomines, and even shows of gladiators. 7. In the end of the republic pleasure and amusement were the darling objects of all ranks of the citizens; they sought no more than panem et circenses.

XXXIX--Of the Art of War among the Romans.

1. From the prodigious success which attended the arms of the Romans, and that dominion they acquired over the greatest part of the known world, it seems a natural inference that they must have carried the military art to a higher degree of perfection than any other of the contemporary nations. Vegetius expressly assigns their extensive conquests to that cause alone. It is the discipline of an army that makes the multitude act as one man. It likewise increases the courage of troops; for each individual confides in the steady co-operation of his fellows.

2. From the constant practice of athletic exercises, the Romans were inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that species of life which a soldier leads in the most active campaign in the field.

3. The levies were made annually, by the tribes called out, and divided into their respective number of centuries; each century presenting by rotation as many soldiers as there were legions intended to be raised; and the tribunc. of the several legions taking their turn by rotation in the selection of the men presented by the centuries. (See supra, sect. 24, § 16.) The number of soldiers in the legion was various at different periods, from 3,000 to 10,000 and 11,000.

4. Among the ancient nations there were usually but two different arrangements of the troops in order of battle: the one the "phalanx," or close arrangement in parallelogram, intersected only by great divisions, a disposition

commonly used by the Greeks, and by most of the barbarous nations; the other, the "quincunx, or chequer," consisting of small companies or platoons, disposed in three straight lines, with alternate spaces between them equal to the space occupied by each company. In the first line were the hastati, in the second the principes, and in the third the triarii; on the flanks of the first line were the cavalry, likewise in detached companies; and in front of the line were the velites, or light-armed troops, who usually began by a skirmishing attack, and then were withdrawn to make way for the main body to come into action. The arms of the legion were, for the hastati and principes, the pilum or heavy javelin and the sword and buckler; and for the triarii, the long spear with the sword and buckler. The advantages of this arrangement were, that the line of battle could be three times formed with fresh troops, and that it was more fitted than any other for rapid changes of movement.

5. Notwithstanding these advantages, the quincunx went into disuse towards the end of the republic; and from that time various arrangements of the legion were used, according to circumstances. The tactic of the Romans is supposed to have been at its greatest pitch of excellence during the Punic wars. Hannibal was a great master of the science, and the Romans profited by the experience of his ability. The battle of Cannæ, as described by Polybius, affords signal evidence of the great talents of the Carthaginian general. That description has been misrepresented by Folard, but is accurately explained in the Mémoirs Militaires of M. Guischardt. Had the

quincunx disposition been kept by the Roman army in that engagement, the event might have been very different, as it would have disappointed the effect of an artful manœuvre planned by Hannibal, on observing his enemy's army arranged in the unusual order of the phalanx.

6. The art of intrenchment was carried to great perfection by the Romans, particularly by Julius Cæsar. With 60,000 men he defended himself in his intrenchments before Alexia, while the lines of circumvallation were attacked by 240,000 Gauls, and the lines of countervallation by 80,000 without effect. These intrenchments consisted of a ditch from 9 to 15 feet in depth and width, fenced on the inside by the mound of excavated earth, and on the outside by strong stakes with pointed branches.