Communications: The Danube and its tributaries are the great highways of internal trade. The country is traversed in all directions by excellent roads, and 30,500 miles of railway connect all the principal towns with one another and the two capitals (both on the Danube), and the two ports (both on the Adriatic).

The Austrian government has, at great expense, constructed good roads across upwards of sixty passes, that leading from Innsbrück over Monte Stelvio to Lombardy being a magnificent road, arched over in some parts to prevent its being blocked by avalanches. Before the construction of railways through the mountainous region which lies between the interior and the seacoast, intercommunication was necessarily limited. The main lines of railway run from Vienna to Prague, &c., on the north; Buda-Pest, &c., on the east; Munich, &c., on the west; and Triest on the south, besides another line across the Brenner Pass to Lombardy. Buda-Pest, the capital of Hungary, has direct communication by rail with the port of Fiume, on the Adriatic.

GOVERNMENT: Austria-Hungary is an hereditary dual monarchy,' the Emperor of Austria being also King of Hungary. The government is dual, the Austrian State and the Hungarian Kingdom each having its own Parliament, Ministry, and Administration.

The empire, as a whole, has no nationality. The ruling power is German in the western provinces, and Hungarian in the eastern division; but the majority of the subjects of both the Austrian and the Hungarian States are of races differing in language, habits, and ideas from the dominant people in each of the two great divisions of the empire, whose rule they more or less reluctantly obey. This division of races is a source of political weakness to the empire, and necessitates the maintenance of a powerful army.

The Revenue and Expen iture for the "common affairs" of the empire amount to nearly 21 millions sterling, of which Austria provides seven-tenths, and Hungary three-tenths. The Revenue and Expenditure of Austria amount to about 84 millions sterling ech, and of Hungary, about 51 millions each. The common Debt amounts to 564 millions-that of Austria, 358 millions, and that of Hungary, 205 millions.

Military service is compulsory in both Austria and Hungary. The AustroHungarian Army numbers nearly 400,000 on the peace footing, and 1,794,000 in time of war. The Navy consists of 160 war vessels (of which 14 are ironclads), manned by upwards of 12 000 men. Pola is the chief naval arsenal. TOWNS: There are 12 towns in Austria, and 9 towns in Hungary with over 50,000 inhabitants. The Austrian capital has a population of over 134 millions, and the Hungarian capital nearly three-quarters of a million.

The other largest towns are Prague, Trieste, Lemberg, Gratz, and Brünn (each of which have over 100,000 inhabitants) in Austria; and Szegedin, MariaTheresiopol, Debreczin, and Pressburg (which contain between 50,000 and 100,000 people), in Hungary.

1. Officially designated Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie, the Austro Hungarian Monarchy.

DIVISIONS: AUSTRIA is divided into 14 Provinces, namely, the Arch-Duchies of Lower Austria and Upper Austria; the Duchies of Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Silesia, and the Bukowina; the Kingdoms of Bohemia, Dalmatia, and Galicia; the Margraviate of Moravia; the Counties of the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, and the County of Görz; the Margraviate of Istria and the City of Trieste (which together form the Coastlands District.)

The chief towns in the Austrian provinces, with their population in thousands, are VIENNA (1,662), in Lower Austria; LINZ (59), in Upper Austria; SALZBURG (33), in the Duchy of Salzburg; GRAZ (138), in Styria; Klagenfurt (24), in Carinthia; LAIBACH (37), in Carniola; TROPPAU (27), in Silesia; CZERNOWITZ (70), in the Bukowina; PRAGUE (226), in Bohemia; ZARA (33), in Dalmatia; LEMBERG (160), in Galicia; BRUNN (109) in Moravia; INNSBRUCK, (27), in the Tyrol; and TRIESTE (179), in the Coastlands.

VIENNA, the capital of the Empire, stands on the south bank of the Danube. It is among the largest of European capitals, and is a great centre of trade. Linz, in Upper Austria, is also on the Danube. Graz, in Styria, is on the River Mur, an affluent of the Drave. Trieste, situated at the head of the Adriatic, is the principal seaport of Austria, and is connected by rail with Vienna and other towns in the interior. Pola, the chief naval station, is on the coast of Istria, near the southern extremity of the peninsula.

PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia, comes next to Vienna in size and population, and is a place of much note in history. Prague stands on the River Moldau, which joins the Elbe. Königgrätz, which gives its name to the decisive victory gained over the Austrians by Prussia in 1866, lies on the Upper Elbe, sixty miles east by north of Prague. Carlsbad, in the north-west of Bohemia, is noted for its baths. Brünn, in Moravia, is an important manufacturing town. Not far distant from it is Austerlitz, the scene of Napoleon's victory over the Austrians in 1805. At Nikolsburg, south of Brünn, peace was signed between Prussia and Austria, at the end of the war in 1866.

GALICIA lies to the east and north of the Carpathian Mountains, and originally formed part of the independent kingdom of Poland. LEMBERG, the capital, is a large city, with considerable trade. Cracow, on the Vistula, was formerly the ecclesiastical capital of Poland, and has a magnificent cathedral. Near Cracow are the famous salt-mines of Wieliczka. Zara, the chief town in Dalmatia, is on the east coast of the Adriatic, and is a thriving port.

The HUNGARIAN STATE includes Hungary proper, with Transylvania and the town of Fiume, and also the provinces of Croatia and Slavonia, which have separate governments for local affairs.

The chief towns in the Hungarian countries are BUDA-PEST (713); PRESSBURG (62); SZEGEDIN (101); MARIA THERESIOPOL (81); DEBRECZIN (73); HODMEZO-VASARHELY (61), in Hungary; KLAUNSENBURG (47), in Transyl. vania; AGRAM (58), in Croatia, and the port of FIUME (38).

BUDA PEST consists of two cities which stand on opposite banks of the Danube, and together form the chief city of Hungary. Pesth (on the east bank) is of the larger size, but Buda is the more ancient. They form together a large city, and Pesth is a great seat of trade. Pressburg, higher up the river, was the ancient capital of Hungar during its period of national indepen

dence. Fiume (38) is the chief seaport of the Hungarian countries. It lies at the head of an arm of the Adriatic, to the south-east of the Gulf of Trieste, and is connected by rail with Pest via Agram.

BOSNIA and HERZEGOVINA were, in 1878, in accordance with the Treaty of Berlin, placed under the direct administration of Austria-Hungary, and are now virtually treated as integral parts of the empire.

These provinces comprise the territory lying between Servia on the east and Dalmatia on the west, the River Save forming the northern boundary. They have an area of about 20,000 square miles, and a population of 1% millions. The characteristic features of these provinces are their well-wooded mountains and fertile valleys; those of Bosnia being watered by the River Save and its tributaries, and those of the Herzegovina by the Narenta and its affluents.

The largest town is Bosna-Serai, or Serajevo (38), the capital of Bosnia. Mostar (14) is the chief town of the Herzegovina. Trebinje and Travnik are fortified towns.

The Revenue meets the local expenditure, but the cost of the Austrian garrison (about 12,000 men) is borne by the Imperial government.

... The Sanjak, or district, and town of Novi-Bazar have 15,000 inhabitants, and although occupied by an Austrian military force, are administered civilly by Turkey.

DENMARK.

DENMARK is a small country in the north-west of Europe. Denmark Proper consists of the northern portion of a peninsula —Jutland—and an adjacent group of islands-Zealand, Funen, Laaland, &c.-lying at the entrance of the Baltic Sea, and the outlying island of Bornholm in the Baltic.

The boundaries of Denmark are-on the north, the Skager Rak; on the east, the Kattegat, the Sound, and the Baltic; on the west, the North Sea; on the south, Germany.

The area of Denmark is nearly 14,800 square miles-less than half the area of Scotland, and about one-fourth that of England and Wales. But if we include Iceland and the Faroe Islands, the total area is 54.310 square miles.

COASTS: The coast-line of Denmark is extensive, being nearly 4,000 miles in length, and the position of the country is one favourable to maritime commerce.

The three channels of entrance to the Baltic-known as the Sound, the Great and Little Belts-lie between the eastern coast of Jutland and the southwestern shores of Sweden. The Sound is between the island of Zealand and the coast of Sweden. The Great Belt is between the islands of Zealand and Funen; and the Little Belt between Funen and the coast of Jutland. Denmark terminates to the north in a point of land, or cape, called the Skaw.

1 The Duchies of 5 eswig-Holstein and Lauen torinery attached to the Danish Crown

were severed from Denmark, after its defeat by the armies of Prussia and Austria, in 1864.

Along the west coast of Jutland and in the Kattegat are numerous shoals and sand banks. The western coasts, regular and unbroken, and containing no harbours, contrast strongly with the eastern coast-line, which is penetrated by numerous inlets, the most important of which, the Liim Fiord, extends across the entire breadth of the peninsula from the Kattegat to the North Sea.

One third of Denmark consists of islands, of which Zealand (2,600 square miles), Funen (1,250), Laaland (462), Bornholm (221), and Falster (178) are the largest.

SURFACE: Denmark is a flat country, often marshy towards the coasts, which in some places require to be protected by dykes, as in Holland. No part of Jutland reaches an elevation of more than 600 feet above the sea-level.

Denmark has no rivers of any large size, though small streams are numerous. The principal are the Guden and Viele, which flow into the Kattegat, and the Skive, which falls into the Liim Fiord, all of which are less than 50 miles in length. There are numerous lakes, but none of any considerable size. Denmark is generally level and monotonous, but there are several remarkably beautiful and well-wooded tracts, especially in the islands.

CLIMATE: The climate of Denmark is somewhat colder and moister than that of Great Britain, but it is, on the whole, temperate and healthy. The winters are severe,' and occasionally the narrow channels between the islands are frozen over."

PRODUCTIONS: The chief sources of national wealth are found in the rich pastures, and in the fisheries carried on in the adjacent seas. There are few wild animals, and no minerals, except limited quantities of coal, marble, and building-stone in the island of Bornholm. Turf is generally used for coal.

INHABITANTS: The Danes belong to the Scandinavian family of nations, and in 1901 numbered 2,447,000, an average of 165 per square mile, less than a third of that of England. The Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland have a total population of about 96,000.

Education is compulsory and widely diffused by means of Primary and Secondary schools, under the control of the Government. There is one university (at Copenhagen) and there are public colleges in the larger towns.

The established Religion is the Lutheran, to which 99 per cent. of the people belong, but all sects are tolerated.

INDUSTRIES: The industry of Denmark is chiefly agricultural; the rearing of cattle and the culture of the land employ the greater number of the people, only one-fourth of whom live by manufactures and trade.

In proportion to its population, Denmark has more cattle than any other country in Europe, and cattle and sheep, butter and cheese, and other farm

1. Snow falls on about 30 days in the year, and the man winter temperature at Copenhagen is 349°F. (32 F. is the freezing-point of fresh water).

The mean annual temperature is 47.18° F.

2. In 1658-5), the army of King Charles X. crossed by the frozen channels from Jutland to Zealand.

and dairy produce, are largely supplied to other countries, and a considerable amount of commerce is thus carried on. The Danes are good sailors, and have always been noted for their devotion to maritime pursuits.

Out of every 1,000 people, 500 live exclusively by agriculture, 230 by manufactures (chiefly for home use), about 70 by trade, and 30 by seafaring and fishing.

COMMERCE: The foreign commerce of Denmark is carried on chiefly with the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden and Norway, Russia, and the Danish Colonies. Annual value, 61 millions sterling. Imports, 33 millions; exports, 27 millions.

The principal imports are cotton and woollen manufactures, metals and hardware, coal and timber, cereals and colonial produce. The chief exports are butter and eggs, pork and lard, grain and flour, live animals, and reexports of colonial produce, textiles, &c.

The imports from the United Kingdom to Denmark and the Danish Colonies amount to over 31⁄2 millions sterling a year, and the exports to this country to nearly 16 millions. COPENHAGEN is the principal port.

Internal communication is facilitated by excellent roads (especially in the islands), about 2,000 miles of railways and several canals. The Liim Fiord, which extends across the country from the Kattegat to the North Sea, throws off several arms, which furnish extensive means of internal communication. The natural channel (formed during the storm of Feb. 3, 1825) connecting the fiord and the sea having becomed closed with sand, the Thyboron Canal was cut, but it can only be used by very small vessels.

GOVERNMENT: Denmark forms an hereditary and constitutional monarchy.

The Executive power is vested in the King, who has also an absolute right of veto on measures passed by the Danish Parliament (the Rigsdag), which is composed of two Chambers-the Landsthing and the Folksthing.

The Revenue and Expenditure each amounts ta a little over 4 millions sterling. The National Debt, much of which has been incurred in the construction of the State Railways, harbours, and other public works, has been reduced to about 13% millions sterling. There is a Reserve Fund of about 312 millions sterling.

The total peace strength of the army is about 16,500, and the war strength about 60,000 men, exclusive of the extra Reserve of about 14,000 officers and The navy consists of 30 war vessels, of which 10 are armour-clad ships, manned by about 1,500 men.

men.

DIVISIONS: Denmark is divided into 7 Stifts, 3 of which are on the islands, and 4 in Jutland.

The 3 Stifts on the islands are (1) Zealand, which includes the islands of Zealand, Amager, Möen and Samsö; (2) Funen, which includes the islands of Funen, Langeland and Arrö; (3) Laaland, which consists of the islands of Laaland and Falster. The 4 Stifts in Jutland are (1) Aalborg, (2) Viborg, (3) Aarhuus, (4) Ribe.

1. The money of account in Denmark is the Krone, and the average rate of exchange, 1s. 1d., or about 18 kroner to 1 sterling.