With Henry III. he was familiarly acquainted; yet his account of the reign of that prince, seems not to be at all tinged with flattery, or sullied with any violation of historic truth. 6. Th. Aquinas, called the angelical doctor, was of a noble family, descended from the kings of Arragon and Sicily. His inclination to embrace an ecclesiastical life, was strongly opposed by his mother. She even confined him two years in her castle. But escaping from her custody, he found the means of improving himself by study, and it was not long before he appeared at Paris, reading public lectures to an applauding audience. On his return to Italy, he became divinity professor to several universities, and at last settled at Naples, where he led a chaste and devout life. Gregory X. invited him to the Council of Lyons, to read the book which he had written against the Greeks, but he died on the way to join the pontiff, near Terracina, 7th March, 1274, in his 50th year. Aquinas left a vast number of works, mostly upon theological subjects, which prove him to have been a man of extensive erudition. There is, however, in his writings, very little of sound, useful, or experimental views of religious truth. 7. Roger Bacon was born in 1214, near Ilchester, of a respectable family, and became a monk of the Franciscan order. A strong, inquisitive mind, soon raised him to consequence; and as he was liberally supported in his pursuits by his friends, he made a most rapid advancement in science and philosophy. His attainments becoming far above the comprehensions of his age, he was suspected and accused of magic. The monks of his order, actuated by jealousy and envy, contrived to have his works rejected from their library, and to prevent him from reading lectures to the students. He was finally imprisoned, and during 10 years was left to pursue his studies in solitary confinement. Within this period, he composed his "Opus Majus," or his Great Work. After being released from prison by the interference of his friends, he spent the remainder of his life in academical repose, at Oxford. He died at the age of 80 years. To the comprehensive mind of Roger Bacon, many of the discoveries, which have been made by the genius and toil of later ages, were known. His knowledge of mathematics and natural philosophy, was profound. He discovered the error in the calendar, and his plan for correcting it was adopted by Gregory XIII. He was acquainted with the structure of an air pump, with the laws of optics, and with the power of glasses. His acquaintance with chemis try was extensive. He gave such a description of gunpowder, that it is evident he was its inventor. In his writings, which amounted to above eighty treatises, some of which are published, and sonie preserved in manuscript, in the libraries of Europe, he uses an elegant and nervous style, and was always accurate in his observations on nature. PERIOD VII. The period of the Papal Schism; extending from the founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C., to the taking of Constantinople, 1453 years A. C. TURKISH EMPIRE. SECT. 1. The EMPIRE of the TURKS, claims the notice of history, from the important consequences connected with its eventual establishment, on the ruin of the Grecian sovereignty. The power of this people is felt on the soil of classical antiquity, and until lately, it extended itself over nearly the whole of it, in the south east of Europe. Their establishment as a separate empire, is an event which took place in 1299 A. C., under Ottoman or Othman, the first Sultan. § The Turks derive their origin from the Avares, a tribe of the Huns who dwelt in Great Tartary, till forced by the Huns of the south, to abandon their country, when they divided into several bodies, each of which taking a different direction, settled, some around the Caspian Sea, some in Pannonia, and others in Asia Minor. The last colony, known under the name of the Seljukide Turks, founded an empire in Asia Minor, about the year 1070, and their chief took the title of Sultan of Iconium, a town of Lycaonia, where he fixed his residence. In 1294, this empire was destroyed by the Moguls, and the emirs or governors of most of the provinces became independent. The Turks embraced Mahometanism long before the time of Othman, as we gather from the history of the Crusades. Othman was an emir under the last sultan of Iconium. Forming the scheme of raising a new empire from that which was just overthrown, he engaged the assistance of several other emirs, and seized Iconiun. He soon fixed the seat of his government at Byrsa, the chief town of Bythinia, and assumed the title of Sultan. From this time the Turks were known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty. By degrees, they encroached on the borders of the Greek empire, and were prevented from subverting it at an early stage, only by the necessity of defending themselves against the victorious Tamerlane. Their principal sovereigns, during this period, after Othman, were Orchan, Amurat I., Bajazet I., Mahomet I., and Amurat II. In the reign of Orchan, the Turks crossed the Hellespont on rafts, took Gallipoli, the key of Europe, penetrated into Thrace, and laid the foundation of the Turkish power in Europe. Orchan created the order of Janizaries, though as they were more completely organized by his successor, Amurat, this institution is generally attributed to the latter. Bajazet I., the successor of Amurat, purposed to besiege the capital of the Greek empire in form, but he was suddenly forced to defend himself against Tamerlane. Tamerlane, or Timer-bek, was a prince of the Usbec Tartars, and a descendant from Gengiskan. Having conquered Persia and most of the East, he was invited by the enemies of Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power. He gladly accepted the invitation, and having met the Turk. he totally defeated him, and made him prisoner. The battle of Angoria, where the chieftains fought, is a famous one in history. Nearly 1,000,000 of men were engaged in this battle, and 300,000 were slain. The victorious career of the Turks was suspended by this event. Bajazet was shut up in an iron cage, in which he destroyed himself. Under Amurat II., the Turks resumed the project of taking Constantinople, but did not succeed. This prince had devoted himself to retirement and study, but some violation of a treaty, led him into a war with the Poles, in which he was signally victorious. He left his dominions to his son Mahomet II., surnamed the Great, known in history as the final subverter of the Eastern empire. ITALIAN STATES. 2. ITALY, in the separate STATES of which it consisted during this period, and subsequently, appears again on the page of history. The principal states were Venice, Florence, Naples, Sicily, the possessions of the Church, Genoa, Parma, and a few others. Most of these sovereignties had been previously founded, but they existed in their most flourishing condition, during the present period. 3. Venice had become considerable in the ninth century. Afterward, in the year 1084, the eastern emperor, Alexius, confirmed to the Venetians, Istria, Dalmatia, and Croatia, which had been conquered by their arms. They subdued also Verano, Padua, and other Italian States, in 1405. On the death of the king of Epirus, they acquired that Island in addition. The Venetians, for a long time, were the principal merchants of the world, but their trade was greatly diminished by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497. During the latter part of this period, in consequence of their wars with the Turks, they lost many of their possessions. § The following incident in the Venetian history, deserves a particular notice. Ziani, the thirty-ninth doge, or chief magistrate of the republic, was involved in a war with Frederic Barbarossa, from whose persecution the Pope had retired to Venice. The Venetians dispatched embassadors to the emperor, who answered them in a rage, that if their doge did not instantly deliver up the Pope, bound hand and foot, he would be terribly revenged,-would bring his army before their city, and fix his victorious standard in their market place, which should float in the blood of its citizens. The embassadors returned with this awful message, and it was agreed to equip a fleet with all expedition, and prepare for repelling the emperor's meditated vengeance. While the Venetians were thus employed, Otho, the Emperor's son, entered the gulf with seventyfive gallies, and was making sail to the city. The doge, with haste, met this fleet, with the few ships which were fit to put to sea, and in a dreadful battle took and destroyed forty-eight of the enemy's vessels, and returned in triumph to Venice. From this time was continued the ceremony of marrying the sea. The Pope going out to meet the victorious doge, presented him with a ring, saying, "Take, Ziani, this ring, and give it to the sea, as a testimony of your dominion. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony, that posterity may know your valour has purchased the prerogative, and subjected this element, even as a husband subjecteth his wife." 4. Florence, which was the capital of Tuscany, early rose into notice. It became a republic in the thirteenth century, and maintained its independence during two or three centu ries. It was distinguished, by the revival of Grecian literature, and the cultivation of the arts, in the fifteenth century. Before the close of this period, the family of the Medicis arose, and shed a splendour on the republic of letters. 5. Naples, just before the beginning of the present era, was entered by Charles, duke of Anjou, who became its king, as well as of Sicily. These countries were frequently united in one government, and as often separated from each other. They were the seat of long wars between the French and Germans on the one part, and the Spaniards on the other. But the latter at length obtained possession of the kingdoms. 6. The Estates of the Church, which include the middle portions of Italy, were, during the present period, greatly involved in controversies. The rival claims for superiority between the popes and emperors, still continued. Henry VII, the successor of Albert, triumphantly fought his way to Rome, where, in a solemn manner, he received the crown, and imposed a tribute on the states of the Church. He was suddenly destroyed, it was supposed, by papal vengeance. It was in his time, that the remarkable event took place, by which the seat of the popedom was changed from Rome to |