History, after those earlier ages in which poetry was the vehicle of recorded events, was cultivated with an interest and success demanded by its importance. The. Greeks possessed several most distinguished historians. § Such were Herodotus, who was characterized by a simple and elegant style and engaging manner; Thucydides, whose reflections were profound, and fidelity unequalled; Xenophon, who combined simplicity of style with sagacity of observation. Philosophy among the Greeks, was divided into various schools or sects. The professors of philosophy arose from the early Rhapsodists-men who recited the poems of Homer and others at the public games, commenting at the same time upon them, and who, having established schools, were dignified by the name of sophists, or teachers of wisdom. The Grecian philosophy, was, however, merely speculative, and seldom based upon facts. § The principal sects of philosophy in Greece were the Ionic, the most ancient, founded by Thales; the Italian, by Pythagoras; the Socratic, by Socrates; the Cynic, by Antisthenes; the Academic, by Plato; the Peripatetic, by Aristotle; the Sceptical, by Pyrrho; the Stoic, by Zeno; the Epicurean, by Epicurus. These sects were distinguished by certain peculiarities of doctrine, as for instance, the Italian taught the transmigration of souls; the Socratic insisted on the excellence of virtue; the Cynic condemned all knowledge, society, and the arts of life; the Academic dealt in ideal forms, and mystical theogony; the Peripatetic exhibited the model of a perfect logic; the Sceptical inculcated universal doubt; the Stoic decried all weakness, and made insensibility a virtue; and the Epicurean pointed to pleasure as the supreme good. The Peripatetic sect, or the school of Aristotle, has exerted the greatest influence over the human mind. It reigned in the schools through 1600 years. The principle of all things was a subject of special research by the philosophers of Greece. It may be curious to know their opinions on this topic. Anaximenes, taught that this principle consisted of Thales, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Water. Water Infinite air. Matter and Spirit. Fire. Epicurus, - Atoms. Unity God, Idea, and matter. Matter, Form, and Privation. God and Matter, (the only things without beginning. Matter and empty Space. The seven wise men of Greece, who are found in the ranks of phi losophy, were Thales, of Miletus; Solon, of Athens; Bias, of Priene; Chilo, of Lacedæmon; Cleobulus, of Lindos; Pittacus, of Mitylene; and Periander, of Corinth. 49. The arts. Greece, in the age of Pericles, about 430 B. C., abounded in architects, sculptors, and painters. It was then in the zenith of its glory in literature, as well as the arts. Indeed this was the taste of the public mind, until after the death of Alexander. Even to this day, Greece, particularly Athens, is the instructress of the world in those monuments of its arts and genius that yet remain. In the useful and necessary arts of life, the Greeks never made any great improvement. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, were left for other nations to perfect. But in the fine arts, appropriately so called, Greece was superior to all ancient nations, and probably not excelled by any modern. Indeed, we may say that the Greeks carried architecture, sculpture, and painting, to perfection. This people invented that system of architecture, which is universally considered the most finished and perfect. The Greek architecture consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Doric possessed a masculine grandeur, and sublime plainness. The Ionic was marked with gracefulness and elegance. The Corinthian affected the highest magnificence and ornament, by uniting the characteristics of all the orders. In sculpture, the Greeks excelled no less than in architecture. Specimens of their art in this respect are perfect models. The Dying Gladiator, the Venus, and the Laocoon, of the Greek sculptors, have an imperishable fame. In painting, though very few specimens have descended down to us, they are supposed also greatly to have excelled. The works of Zeuxis, Apelles, Parrhasius, Protogens, and Timanthes, which have perished, were highly extolled by the writers of antiquity. In music, the Greeks appear to have been less conspicuous than several modern nations. 50. Private and domestic Life. The dress of the Greeks, as well as of other ancient nations, differed much from that of most modern nations. The men wore an inner garment called tunic, over which they threw a mantle; their shoes, or sandals, were fastened under the soles of their feet with thongs or ropes. The women, particularly in Athens, wore a white tunic, which was closely bound with a broad sash, and descended in vaving folds down to the heels; also a shorter robe, confined round the waist with a ribbon, bordered at the bottom with stripes of various colours; over this they sometimes put on a robe, which was worn gathered up like a scarf. In the earlier ages of Greece, its inhabitants used no covering on their heads; but in after times they wore hats, that were tied under the chin. Women, however, always had their heads covered. § The Athenians wore in their hair golden grasshoppers, as emblems of the antiquity of their nation, intimating that they were sprung from the earth. In Sparta, the kings, magistrates, and citizens, were but little distinguished by external appearance. The military costume was of a red colour. The Greeks, in general, set a high value on scarlet colour, and a still greater on purple. The meals of the Greeks were usually four in number: Breakfast was taken about the rising of the sun; the next meal at mid-day; then came the afternoon repast; and lastly the supper, which was the principal meal, as it was taken after the business of the day. At Sparta they ate together at public tables, and the chief part of their food consisted of black broth. In the earliest ages, convivial entertainments were generally acts of public devotion, but afterwards we find them in use in private life There were also political feasts, in which a whole city, tribe, or other subdivision, met together. Water and wine were used for drinking. Perfumed wines were introduced at the tables of the rich. Every thing capable of sustaining life was used as food. The Greeks generally were very fond of fish. Hot baths were very numerous, and bathing in them, and anointing the body, with a change of clean clothes, were usual in preparing for a feast. When guests were invited, men and women were never invited together. Seats, on which persons sat upright, were employed; but, as luxury prevailed, couches were introduced, on which the guests reclined while feasting. The marriages among the Greeks were lawful only as the consent of parents or other relatives could be obtained. This institution was greatly encouraged in all parts of Greece. Want of esteem, and sometimes the infliction of punishment, attended the failure of entering into the connubial state. $ Polygamy was allowed only after times of great calamity, such as war or pestilence. Socrates married a second wife on this account. Violations of the marriage contract, though the punishment was severe, were often committed. The Grecian women seldom or never appeared in strange company, 'but were confined to the remote parts of the house, into which no male visitants were admitted. When they went abroad, they wore veils to conceal their faces. It was disreputable, however, to appear much abroad. In some parts of Greece, parents might expose their children, in certain cases. Children were required to maintain their parents in old age; but by the laws of Solon, if a person did not bring up his children to some useful employment, they were to be exempted from such an obligation. The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many ce remonies, showing that they considered the duties belonging to the dead to be of the highest importance. In their view, it was the most awful of all imprecations, to wish that a person might die without the honours of a funeral. Phoenicians. 51. Country. Phoenicia was little more than a narrow slip of ground situated between mount Libanus and the sea. It had Syria on the north and east, Judea on the south, and the Mediterranean on the west. 52. Cities and Remains. Sidon was the capital, and a maritime town of considerable extent, and provided with an excellent harbour. It was distinguished by a high degree of opulence and refinement. Tyrus, called the daughter of Sidon, was built upon an island south of Sidon, and 25 miles distant. It was ornamented with many magnificent buildings. § Sidon is often mentioned by Homer, but Tyrus never. Tyrus was joined by Alexander to the main land, and time has consolidated his work. The walls of Tyre were 150 feet high, with a proportionate breadth. Old Tyre, on the continent, was destroyed by the Assyrians. It was new Tyre that Alexander took after a siege of seven months. A few fishermen's huts are among its ruins. Other principal cities were Aradus, Tripoli, Byblus, Sarepta, and Berytus. Some vestiges of the splendour of this ancient land are still in existence. The ruins of Sidon exhibit many fine columns and other fragments of marble. § A double column of granite, consisting of one entire block, 80 feet long, has been noticed among the ruins of Tyre. 53. Navigation and Colonies. The Phoenicians, confined between the sea and mountains, acquired power and aggrandizement by navigation. Their navigators were famous for their skill and intrepidity. They engrossed the commerce of the western hemisphere. R They formed establishments on both sides of the Mediterranean, and even on those of the western ocean. In the time of Abraham, they were known to be a commercial and enter. prising people. § Carthage, Utica, Gades, &c. were colonies founded by the inhabitants of Tyre. 54. Sciences, Arts, and Manufactures. From the earliest periods, the Phoenicians were addicted to philosophy. The sciences of arithmetic and astronomy were invented or improved by them, and they are known to have introduced letters into Greece. § Before the time of the Trojan war, Moschus, a Sidonian, explained the doctrine of Atoms. I latter ages, we read of some eminent philosophers; among them was Boethius, Antipater, Diodatus, and Apollonius. In manufactures they were skilled. Glass, purple, and fine linen, were products of their own invention. In architecture they were so versed, that Solomon sought their aid in erecting his magnificent temple. 55. Religion. As the Phoenicians were so nearly connected with the immediate descendants of Noah, they were probably instructed in the worship of the true God; but they became at length inmersed in idolatry and superstition. The principal objects of their mistaken adoration were Beelsmen, or the sun, Baal, Astarte, the "queen of heaven," Hercules, Adonis, and the Patæci, certain small statues, which being venerated as the tutelar gods of sea-faring men, were always carried about in the prows of their vessels. One of these idolatrous objects Milton describes in mellifluous verse "With these in troop Came Ashtoreth, whom the Phoenicians call'd Lydians. 56. Country. The country of the Lydians had Mysia on the north, and Caria on the south. resting portion of Asia Minor. It constituted an inte § The inhabitants on the coast, who were Ionians divided into twelve small states, gave their name to a dialect of the Greek language-Ionic. 57. Cities. The principal cities were Ephesus, illustrious in classic and in christian antiquity; Sardis, the ancient me |