CHINA.

(CHUNG KWOH, THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.')

Reigning Emperor.

Tsaitien, Emperor-Hwangti-of China, born 1871, the son of Prince Ch'un, brother of the Emperor Hien-fung; succeeded to the throne by proclamation, at the death of Emperor T'ung-chi, January 22, 1875.

The present sovereign, surnamed Kwangsü, is the ninth Emperor of China of the Tartar dynasty of Ts'ing, which succeeded the native dynasty of Ming, in the year 1644. There exists no law of hereditary succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign to appoint his successor from among the members of his family of a younger generation than his own. The late Emperor, dying suddenly in the eighteenth year of his age, did not designate a successor, and it was in consequence of arrangements, directed by the Empress Dowager, widow of the Emperor Hienfung, predecessor of T'ungchi, in concert with Prince Ch'un, that the infant son of the latter was made the nominal occupant of the throne.

Government and Public Revenue.

The laws of the empire are laid down in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien, or 'Collected Regulations of the Ts'ing dynasty,' which prescribe the government of the state to be based upon the government of the family. The Emperor is considered the sole high priest of the empire, and can alone, with his immediate representatives and ministers, perform the great religious ceremonies. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian or State religion.

The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction of the Nei-ko or Cabinet, comprising four members, two of Tartar and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants from the Hanlin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing is done contrary to the civil and religious laws of the empire, contained in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien, and in the sacred books of Confucius. These members are denominated ‘Ta-hio-sz,' or Ministers of State. Under their orders are the Liu-pu, or six boards of government, each of which is presided over by a Tartar and a Chinese. They are:-1. The board of civil appointments, which takes cognisance of the conduct and administration of all civil officers; 2. The board of revenues, regulating all financial affairs; 3. The board of rites and ceremonies, which enforces the laws and customs

to be observed by the people; 4. The military board, superintending the administration of the army; 5. The board of public works; and 6. The high tribunal of criminal jurisdiction.

Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the central administration, is the Tu-chah-yuen, or board of public censors. It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents, the one of Tartar and the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient custom of the empire, all the members of this board are privileged to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One censor must be present at the meetings of each of the six Government boards.

The amount of the public revenue of China is only known by estimates. According to the most authentic of these, the total receipts of the government in recent years averaged 25,000,000l., derived from taxes on land, grain, licences, and customs duties upon exports and imports, as collected at the Treaty ports by the foreign inspectorate. The receipts from the latter alone are made public. They amounted to 7,872,257 haikwan taels, or 2,361,6771. in 1864, and gradually increasing, had risen to 14,685,162 haikwan tael, or 4,099,6087., in 1881, and to 14,085,672 haikwan tael, or 4,000,000l. in 1882. The customs duties fall more upon exports than imports. The expenditure of the Government is mainly for the army, the maintenance of which is estimated to cost 15,000,000l. per annum on the average.

China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874. In December 1874 the Government contracted a loan of 627,6751., bearing 8 per cent. interest, secured by the customs revenue. A second 8 per cent. foreign loan, likewise secured on the customs, to the amount of 1,604,2767., was issued in July 1878. Two silver loans have since been contracted, the total external debt in 1882 being given at 2,073,2017. The internal debt amounts to about 8,570,000l.

Religion and Education.

The State religion of China has no outward ceremonial, except a few symbolical rites observed at New Year; it consists mainly in the study and contemplation of the moral precepts of Confucius and Lao-tse. The bulk of the people, however, are Buddhists. There are probably about 30 million Mahometans, chiefly in the north-east and south-west. Roman Catholicism has long had a footing in China, and is estimated to have about 500,000 adherents, with 25 bishoprics besides those of Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, and Corea; other Christian sects have stations in many parts of the country.

Most of the aboriginal hill-tribes are still nature worshippers, and ethnically are distinct from the prevailing Mongoloid population.

Education of a certain type is all but universal, and there are few adults who cannot read and write. There is a special literary

or lettered class who alone know the Mandarin literature, to the study of which they devote their lives. Yearly examinations are held for literary degrees and honours, which are necessary as a passport to the public service. Recently, Western literature, and especially works of science, have been introduced in translations, and there is a foreign college at Pekin, which embraces both a literary and scientific curriculum.

Army and Navy.

The standing military force of China consists of two great divisions, the first formed by the more immediate subjects of the ruling dynasty, the Tartars, and the second by the Chinese and other subject races. Under the first are included the Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese Bannermen, distributed in permanent garrisons over the great cities of the empire, while the second is made up of purely Chinese troops. The Manchu Tartars, founders of the present dynasty, when they conquered China, in 1644, divided their army into four corps, distinguished as being under white, blue, red, and yellow banners. Four bordered banners of the same colours were subsequently added, and in course of time there were added to these eight similar corps of Mongols and eight of Chinese, who had cast in their lot with the invaders. The chief command of these corps -which are of a mixed civil and military organisation, all being liable to bear arms, but not all being paid as soldiers-is vested in high officers of the three nationalities, the Manchu, on the whole, predominating. Permanent Manchu garrisons under Manchu officers are established in the great cities on the coast and along the frontier. The purely Chinese army is altogether distinct from this force, and is mainly composed of natives of China. It is broken up into a multitude of camps widely distributed over the empire, each province having probably from 20,000 to 100,000 men during time of war. But the standing Chinese army is mainly used to act as a constabulary in the various departments of the empire.

In 1883 the Chinese Navy possessed 2 powerful armoured ships of modern type, built in Germany, and detained there at the close of the year in consequence of the doubtful relations with France. These are sister ships, named the 'Teng-Yuen' and 'Chen Yuen,' They are of 7,400 tons displacement, 6,200 horse-power, and of 15 knots speed. Their armour (steel-faced) is 14 metres thick, and they each carry 4 12-inch Krupp breech-loading guns in two towers, protected by 12-inch armour. The disposition of the towers resembles that of the turrets on the 'Inflexible' (see page 242).

A third armoured cruiser, the 'Nan Thin,' also built in Germany, was launched at the end of 1883. She is of 2,300 tons displacement, has a protective deck over machinery and magazines, and carries 2

An

8-inch Krupp guns in a barbette, protected by 10-inch armour. ironclad corvette, the 'Nan Shuin,' was launched at Kiel in January 1884; it is built of steel, is of 2,200 tons displacement, 2,400 indicated horse-power, has 2 Armstrong guns, and several mitrailleuses. Two swift cruisers (unarmoured), built by Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co. in 1881, are also attached to the North China Squadron. Their hulls are of steel, they steam 16 knots, carry 2 26-ton Armstrong gun, and 4 40-prs,, and are only of 1,400 tons displacement. To the same squadron belong 10 or 12 gunboats, built by the Elswick firm, each carrying a single heavy gun-26-ton or 38-ton. This type of gunboat was originated by Mr. G. Rendel, and there are very many examples in the Royal Navy, but with smaller guns than are carried by the Chinese vessels.

The squadrons of Loo-Choo, Shanghai, and Canton include between 40 and 50 unarmoured cruisers, corvettes, sloops, and gunboats. Some of these vessels are of considerable size and power. The cruiser 'Yang-ou' is of 1,600 tons displacement, and 1,250 horse-power; and another cruiser is of 2,150 tons, and 2,400 horse-power. Both of these vessels were built at Loo-Choo. Still larger vessels are reported to belong to the Shanghai division, and are of Chinese construction. Several torpedo-boats of high speed and capable of using Whitehead torpedoes have also been acquired recently.

Area and Population.

Hitherto the population of China, it is believed, has been much over-estimated; good authorities would reduce it to 250 millions, which the Statistician to the Chinese Customs Department considers is probably nearer the truth than any of the higher estimates. A census for fiscal purposes reported to have been taken in 1882 is stated by the United States' minister to give a population of 255,000,000. The following tables give a statement of the area and population according to Behm and Wagner's 'Bevölkerung der Erde,' 1882.

The territories of Corea and Annam are sometimes added to this.

total. Although China seems to exercise a slender suzerainty over the former country, and maintains her right to interfere with respect to foreign relations, still Corea is practically independent. The ordinary native name of the country is Tsyo Syeun, or Keirin. The monarchy is hereditary and of an absolute type, modelled on that of China, as is also the penal code; there is a hereditary aristocracy. There is no standing army, but all the men are liable to military service. The State religion resembles that of China; Buddhism and the Laotse doctrines prevail among the people, while Confucianism is common among the upper classes. The language seems intermediate between Mongolo-Tartar and Japanese, but the Chinese system of writing is used, and therefore written intercourse between the two peoples is practicable. The area is estimated at 82,000 square miles, and the population from 8,000,000 to 15,000,000; an official enumeration is stated on Japanese authority to give the population at 16,227,885 in 1881; while recent statistics give 2,356,267 families, and 10,518,937 inhabitants-5,312,523 males, and 5,206,414 females. The capital Seoul has about 250,000 inhabitants.

In 1882 Corea concluded a treaty with the United States, whereby certain ports have been opened to foreign commerce. A similar treaty is being at present (December, 1883) negotiated with Great Britain. A customs service, conducted by foreigners, somewhat similar to that of China, and under the superintendence of the Chinese customs department, has been established. The Japanese have for many years had trading stations in Corea, and consular agents at certain ports, and have even claimed suzerain rights over the country. According to Japanese returns the total import trade of Corea in 1881 amounted to 388,9471., of which 40,4137. came from Japan, and the remainder from other countries. Of the total imports the bulk consisted of cotton goods, mostly of English origin, valued at 304,770l. In the first half of 1882 the imports were valued at 148,5121., among which was 7,5361. of copper coin. In 1879 the imports amounted to 113,7801., and in 1880 to 195,600l. In 1881 the export trade was valued at 376,530., in 1880 at 274,7301., and in 1879 at 135,4102.; the leading exports are ginseng, hides and rice, beans and peas, and silk. Much of the country is mountainous, and the proportion of cultivated land is not large; the principal crops are rice, millet, beans and jute.

For ANNAM, see FRANCE, p. 95.

China proper is often designated by its inhabitants as the eighteen provinces-Shih-pa-sheng-from its administrative divisions. According to the most trustworthy estimates, partly based on official returns, the area and population of each of the eighteen provinces are as follows::