Division II.-From the Accession of James I. to the Present Time. ** Readings on the Battle of Agincourt, the Capture of Gibraltar by the THE MANCHESTER HISTORIC Ꭱ Ꭼ Ꭺ Ꭰ Ꭼ Ꭱ. Division II. FROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES I. TO THE PRESENT TIME. THE COURSE OF HISTORY. [By Sir Arthur Helps, C.B., clerk to Her Majesty's Privy Council, and author of several essays, dialogues, and historical works, of which the principal are, Essays written in the Intervals of Business ;"" Friends in Council-a Series of Readings and Discourses;" the "Conquerors of the New World and their Bondsmen;" and a "History of the Spanish Conquest of America." He was born about the year 1817.] The course of history is like that of a great river wandering through various countries: now, in the infancy of its current, collecting its waters from obscure small springs in splashy meadows, and from unconsidered rivulets which the neighbouring rustics do not know th name of; now, in its boisterous youth, forcing its wa straight through mountains; now, in middle life, going with equable current busily by great towns, its waters sullied, yet enriched, with commerce; and now, in its burdened old age, making its slow and difficult way with great broad surface, over which the declining sun looms grandly, to the sea. The uninstructed or careless traveller generally finds but one form of beauty or meaning in the river the romantic gorge or wild cascade is, perhaps, the only kind of scenery which delights him. And so it has often been in our estimate of history. Well-fought battles, or the doings of gay courts, or bloody revolutions, have been the chief sources of attraction, while less dressed events, but not of less real interest or import, have often escaped all notice. [This brief but picturesque illustration of the course of history may be aptly followed by the succeeding definition of the history of any nation and the duties of the historian, taken from the article on history in the "English Cyclopedia."] The history of any nation is a statement in chronological order of the various actions and events whereby the society which constitutes that nation has attained and is. in its actual state; meaning by its actual state (so far as such a term is capable of definition) its aggregate means of happiness. But though such a statement as we have just mentioned of actions and events, when they are judiciously arranged, will of itself indicate the general principles which from time to time have more or less affected the condition of society, the purpose of the historian is distinguished from the labour of the annalist (who merely records events without comment) by the philosophical character which he gives to his work. It is true that history, even thus viewed, may be written by one man more particularly with reference to one kind of actions and events, and by another man more particularly with reference to another kind; but as the subject of history is the progressive development of society, the historian who best seizes on those things which, at each stage, characterise this progress, will approach nearest to giving his work a real philosophical character. religion, the positive morality, the legislation, the education, and the domestic habits of a people, are matters which intimately affect the happiness of a nation. Their progress in the mechanical or other arts is not to be overlooked, for their material prosperity largely influences their moral condition. While, then, the philosophic historian, in tracing the progress of any given society from its origin to its development, omits no event in his series that shall be necessary to link the present with the past, he more The particularly directs his attention to the consideration of those civil and religious institutions, and to those popular notions of right and wrong, of virtue and vice, which lie at the bottom of every society that has existed, or does exist, however disguised or obscured by the structure which has been reared upon them. To trace to their origin and to view in their simplest forms these elements of society-to seize with precision and completeness their characteristics and their differences-to follow them in the progress of their development and modification, both as influencing and being influenced by the new elements which from time to time enter into the composition of society; and to show at each stage of its progress, not only the condition of society, but the causes which determine such condition— such may be called a philosophic exhibition of history; or, in other words, a determination of the general principles which govern any given society, and the consequences which flow from them. As this determination of general principles and their effects forms the scientific part of the subject of history, so the mode of treating and exhibiting such a subject is the artistic part. No exact rules can be laid down for the treatment of history as a branch of art. It may be simply said that while the main object is to instruct, it is also an object to please, independent of the pleasure given by the mere communication of knowledge; that out of the infinite number of events which mark the progress of society a few are often sufficient for the purpose of the historian, and that in the selection of the most appropriate he will show his judgment and skill; that while he clearly points out those great principles which have had most influence on the condition of society, he will not overload his work with reflections which the matter will suggest to the reader; and he will often not do more than put him in the way of following out a train of thought. His art will often teach him to conceal his purpose of instruction, when his work will not be prejudiced by his apparent forgetfulness of the dignity of his subject. To enumerate among the historian's qualifications those of industry, integrity, and sound knowledge, or to detail all the qualifications for executing his task in the best possible manner, would be superfluous, if not impertinent. We will, instead of this, briefly consider the value of his labours when complete, and the advantage which his readers will derive from a careful perusal of his work and an examination of the original sources. It is a common remark that all history is uncertain, and if the remark were true to the full extent, there would be little use in attempting to show the value of that which cannot be known with certainty. But though many events, or rather the circumstances of such events, are uncertain, the most valuable part of history rests upon monuments which have no uncertainty in their character. The positive institutions of every civilised country, its laws and its literature, are facts recorded, which are rich in instruction, independent of their being evidence of an infinite number of other facts of which they are conclusive proof. The study of these monuments, whether prosecuted under the guidance of an historian who has used them in the construction of his work, or followed out by individuals according to their own judgment, and mainly with reference to some special branch of inquiry, is one of the noblest subjects that can engage our attention. Such a study aims at the philosophical exposition of what now is, by reference to what has led to it: it shows what principles lie at the roots of our social system, what they once were, how they have been modified, and what they now are. Knowing what each thing is, and how it came to be what it is, we are better enabled to form a conjecture of what it will be, and how we may best fashion it to our purposes. Thus we learn in what circumstances change may be made with advantage; and knowing from the experience which history teaches that changes in our social relations become necessary in the course of time, and can neither be resisted with safety nor safely left to be directed by the blind impulse of numbers, we learn how to introduce such changes with the least chance of injury. But such a study, to be prosecuted with success, must be the occupation of a whole life and if the active man of business into whose hands legislation and administration have been entrusted |