with a House of Deputies in General Convention. The lower House is composed of four clerical and four lay delegates (communicants) from each diocese and one clerical and one lay delegate from each missionary jurisdiction. Either House may originate legislation, but concurrent action is necessary to make it valid. The House of Bishops has a veto on the action of the lower House. All bishops are equal in rank. The senior by consecration acts as primate or "Presiding Bishop." All general disciplinary regulations are comprised in the Constitution and Canons of the General Convention. In addition to these, each diocese has its own Constitution and Canons.

A General Convention was held in 1789. Bishop Provoost and some delegates objected to the recognition of Bishop Seabury, but the objection was overcome by the influence of Bishop White. As Bishop Provoost was absent, Bishop Seabury and Bishop White constituted the first House of Bishops. Their chief work was the revision of the Prayer Book. All proposed changes emanated from the bishops and, with one exception, were ratified by the House of Deputies. The two bishops formed an effective combination. To quote an apt comment of Bishop John Williams: "For the results of that memorable Convention, in which so much was gained - may we not say so little lost? - we are indebted under the over-ruling wisdom of the Holy Spirit to the steadfast gentleness of Bishop White and the gentle steadfastness of Bishop Seabury."

The Prayer Book adopted in 1789 (to which a few additional offices were later added) continued in use for over a century. In 1892 a second revision was completed when the Prayer Book was given its present form. This Prayer Book, which contains all the public offices of the Church, is the best evidence of the doctrinal and ecclesiastical position of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Canons give regulations for practical administration, discipline and clerical education. They give a fair idea of the Church's methods of working. The Prayer Book alone can suggest the faith and spirit which constitute her life.

History during the 19th Century. For 50 years the Episcopal Church was a small body. It could do little more than assert its right to exist in the face of hostile prejudice. It was suspected for its English antecedents and disliked for its assertion-distinct though timid - of ancient ecclesiastical principles in the midst of prevalent Protestantism. It was perforce apologetically apostolic. It was inevitable, however, that it should gain a firm footing in American life, when its representatives were such clergy as its first bishops and such iaity as Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, Franklin and two thirds of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. For 50 years the most conspicuous figure in the Church was that of Bishop White. His episcopate (1787-1836) was the most important the Church has seen. His wise and gentle guidance of his own people, his fairness and charity toward all others, did much to protect the Church in the critical period of its history.

There were other strong men in the House of Bishops. John Henry Hobart of New York (1775-1830) had the most forcible personality.

He was, as his epitaph states, "the able and intrepid Champion of the Church of God." He was enthusiastically loyal to the principles of his Church and saw no wisdom or charity in hesitating to avow them. "Evangelical Truth and Apostolic Order" was his motto. No Churchman of his time did so much to make explicit the principles of Anglican Catholicism. Alexander Viets Griswold (1766-1843) of the Eastern Diocese (all New England except Connecticut) was influential in a different way. He possessed New England virtues, a serious piety, patient hardihood and frugality, and a great capacity for hard work. His faithful ministrations in all parts of his immense diocese did much to dispel Puritan superstition concerning Episcopacy and the episcopal order.

His

Philander Chase of New Hampshire (17751852), first bishop of Ohio, and later of Illinois, labored indefatigably as a missionary in many States. He was founder of Kenyon College and Bexley Hall, Gambier, Ohio, and Jubilee College, Peoria, Ill. For both of these he obtained funds in England. He was of an eccentric character, but a man of determination. one aim was to spread the knowledge of his own two treasures, the Bible and the Prayer Book. These men were typical American Churchmen of the first half of the 19th century. Their work indicates very fairly the kind of work done by their fellow-Churchmen in all parts of the country.

Parties.-The work of the Church has been largely missionary; its clergy, men of affairs rather than theologians. It has produced no peculiar school of thought, but has reflected the theological developments of England and Germany. There have been, generally speaking, three types of Churchmen, known respectively as High Church, Low Church and Broad Church. Each of these has emphasized some one side of Church teaching and has not escaped the dangers of one-sided partisanship.

The Low Church represented the 18th century revival in the Church of England which took the form of Evangelicalism within the Church and Methodism without. The truths which it emphasized were the absolute dependence of the spiritual life on the person of Christ, the need of conversion, the reality of grace and purely instrumental character of "ordinances." The Atonement was the central fact in Evangelical theology. (Men of this school were also noted for promoting the cause of foreign missions.) The Evangelicals were dominant until the middle of the 19th century. They were strenuous in opposing High Church teaching as being thinly disguised "Popery."

High Church principles were brought to the fore by the Tractarian (Oxford) Movement which began in 1833. These were the assertion of the character of the Church as a divine society, the special sphere of the working of the Holy Spirit; of the character of sacraments as veritable means of grace; of the central place in Christian worship of the Holy Eucharist. Among the more obvious results of this movement were increased reverence and beauty in church services, increased parochial activity, especially among the poor; the revival of frequent Eucharists and (to some extent) of auricular confession. The later stages of the movement produced a party of Ritualists. They differed from

the early Tractarians. Their ritual was largely in imitation of the Latin rite, whereas their predecessors copied a Laudian model; their ideals were mediæval rather than patristic. The early Tractarians sought to revive the teaching and spirit of the first four centuries, the ritualists to reproduce the picturesque externals of the 14th. Both sections of the party emphasized the "sacramental principle" in Christianity and made the Incarnation rather than the Atonement the central fact in their theology. Parallel with the Oxford Movement was the development of what is variously described as the Liberal Theology or Latitudinarianism. The Broad Church platform is based on the fundamental truth of the Fatherhood of God. It is well described in words of its most distinguished American representative, Phillips Brooks. "The broader theology, which had its masters in England in such men as Dr. Arnold and the Rev. Frederick D. Maurice, has likewise had its clear and powerful effect upon the Episcopal Church. A lofty belief in man's spiritual possibilities, a large hope for man's eternal destinies, a desire for the careful and critical study of the Bible, and an earnest insistence on the comprehensive character of the Church of Christ- these are the characteristics of much of the most zealous pulpit teaching and parish life in these later days." Broad Churchmen desire to vindicate the rational character of Christianity, to develop its philosophic side, to bring formal statements of the faith into accord with modern knowledge and modern thought. They find themselves much in sympathy with the early theology of Alexandria and more or less opposed to the type of mind represented by Augustine.

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There has been conflict between representatives of these several schools, not concerning positive principles but concerning their spective negations. Too often zeal for a halftruth has denied or disparaged another halftruth. In retrospect it seems easy to see that the special principles of the three schools are equally part of the Church's teaching. The difference between them is largely one of emphasis. They divide the Creed between them. The Church Catechism contains a question, "What dost thou chiefly learn by these articles of thy belief?" The answer is: "First, I learn to believe in God the Father, who hath made me and all the world; secondly, in God the Son, who hath redeemed me and all mankind; thirdly, in God the Holy Ghost, who sanctifieth me and all the people of God." This suggests a generalization which may characterize High, Low, and Broad Church. Each has emphasized one section of the Creed, and, at times, failed to do justice to the others. The Broad Church are concerned for the Fatherhood of God, the moral and philosophical basis of Christian truth. The Low Church are chiefly concerned to present Christ as Redeemer and the Centre of all their thought. The High Church have had to emphasize a neglected portion of the Creed, belief in the Holy Ghost, the Sanctifier, in Church and Sacraments as ordained means of union with Christ. The best men of the various schools have never been mere partisans. Party-lines are now less clearly defined. The tendency is to combine truths, to cultivate an all-round Churchmanship, which has more than one dimension.

Controversy. For over 30 years, Churchmen

were more or less disturbed by discussions aroused by the Tractarian Movement. American Low Churchmen were strongly opposed to the "Oxford Divinity." The first important incident in the agitation was the "Carey ordination" in 1842. Arthur Carey, a graduate of the General Theological Seminary, who had accepted Tractarian principles, was, in consequence, subjected to a severe examination by the chaplains of the bishop of New York. They declined to recommend him for orders. The bishop, Dr. B. T. Onderdonk, himself examined the candidate, was satisfied with his answers, and proceeded to his ordination. This occasioned an outcry against the bishop, and was the signal for a series of disputes and campaigns of pamphlet warfare, in various parts of the country. In many instances, Low Church bishops objected to the liking of High Church clergy for "awkward chancel-arrangements" suggestive of High Eucharistic doctrine. Bishop McIlvaine of Ohio refused to consecrate a church until the altar was removed from the east wall. Bishop Eastburn of Massachusetts refused to visit a Boston church for confirmations because the clergy kneeled facing the altar, which was surmounted by a cross and candlesticks. These were typical examples. There were discussions over vested choirs, preaching in surplice, stained-glass windows, flowers on the altar, and similar details. There was also an effort made by Low Church partisans to discredit High Church doctrine by impugning the moral character of its leading champions. Partisan motives mingled with the laudable feeling that a bishop like the wife of Cæsar "must be above suspicion."

A revival of controversy followed the Civil War. At two successive General Conventions, 1868 and 1871, the main discussion concerned a "Canon of Ritual." Various proposals were made to forbid the use of ceremonies recently revived, and behind this was opposition to Tractarian teaching on the sacraments. In the convention of 1871, Dr. James De Koven of Racine College took a firm stand as champion of "the Real Presence" and challenged anyone to bring him to trial for erroneous doctrine. The challenge was not accepted. In 1875, however, because of his principles, the Church at large refused to confirm Dr. De Koven's election to the see of Illinois, as it had previously refused to confirm the election of Dean George F. Seymour. The Convention of 1874 passed a canon forbidding "ceremonies or practices not ordained or authorized in the Book of Common Prayer and setting forth or symbolizing erroneous or doubtful doctrines." The accompanying discussion indicates that the framers had especially in mind "the doctrine commonly known as Transubstantiation." In 1878, Dr. G. F. Seymour was elected bishop of Springfield. This time his election to the episcopate was confirmed by the Church. The event of his consecration marks the end of the effort to deny that High Church doctrine is in harmony with Anglican formularies. It marks also the end of a crusade against ritual as such, although the Church has consistently disapproved any attempt to supersede Anglican by Roman doctrine.

At the time of this later discussion occurred the secession of the "Reformed Episcopalians." The occasion of this was a controversy over

Baptismal Regeneration. A number of Churchmen who held Zwinglian views of sacraments objected to the wording of the baptismal office. They found a leader in the assistant bishop of Kentucky, Dr. G. D. Cummins. He issued a call for a conference of all who wished to reform the Church. The convention adopted an expurgated Prayer Book and organized as a new sect. Bishop Cummins was deposed by the House of Bishops. He continued, however, to act as bishop and consecrated as a colleague, the Rev. C. E. Cheney, a deposed clergyman of the diocese of Illinois. Their following was never large and has now dwindled to insignificant proportions.

The Church of the Confederacy. It is pleasant to turn to a striking episode in the Church's history where an unavoidable division was quickly and quietly healed. By the outbreak of the Civil War, Southern Churchmen were isolated from their Northern brethren. Their position was analogous to that of colonial Churchmen at the Revolution. There was this great difference that there were eleven organized dioceses, each with a bishop. These eleven dioceses eventually united to form the Protestant Episcopal Church of the Confederate States. For five years the Church of the Confederacy pursued its independent course. Bishop Polk of Louisiana, who had had a West Point education, assumed command of a Confederate army and was killed in battle. At the end of the War the Church was confronted with the difficult question of the relation of these severed parts. Some Northerners were anxious to take action which would have been very offensive to Southern susceptibilities. There were two specially difficult points, the precedent established by Bishop Polk and the case of Bishop Wilmer of Alabama, who had been consecrated during the War, without the consent of the Northern dioceses. Fortunately the wisdom of a few leaders, Hopkins of Vermont, Horatio Potter of New York, and others, guided all to a satisfactory conclusion. The Convention of 1862 had ignored the absence of Southern delegates. In 1865, the Southern bishops were urged to attend and "trust to the love and honor of their brethren." Two bishops and delegates from three dioceses responded. In the Convention of 1868, the South was fully represented. By exercise of tact and patience on both sides, Churchmen had succeeded in ignoring "the late unpleasantness."

Christian Unity. As has been already noted, the Episcopal Church believes that she has a special mission to promote Church Unity. For 50 years there has been a standing Commission to consider this subject. The occasion of its appointment was the presentation at the Convention of 1853 of a "Memorial" signed by Dr. W. A. Muhlenberg and other well-known clergymen. This "Memorial" made a plea for greater liturgical freedom and a less stringency in conferring Holy Orders. It aimed at taking "an important step towards the effecting of a Church unity in the Protestant Christendom of our land." The first report of the Commission made valuable suggestions, but led to no immediate results. Important members of the Commission were Bishops George Burgess of Maine and Alonzo Potter of Pennsylvania. The discussion which ensued paved the way for sub

sequent Prayer Book revision and conferences with representatives of other Christan bodies. Part of the aim of the "Memorial" was realized in 1898 by the passage of the "Huntington Amendment." This relaxes the obligation always to use the Prayer Book in public worship and recognizes the duty of bishops to provide special forms of service for special congregations and special occasions. Both "Memorial" and "Amendment" aim at making the Church freer for evangelistic work.

There is another side to this work for unity. Dr. Muhlenberg had in mind "the Protestant Christendom of our land." There is a larger Christendom than this which the Church may not forget. Something has been done to establish friendly relations with Eastern Orthodox and Old Catholics. Bishop Horatio Southgate in 1843 was accredited, as representing the Church, to the Patriarch of Constantinople; Dr. J. F. Young of New York (later bishop of Florida) in 1864, and Bishop Grafton of Fond du Lac, in 1903, have paid official visits to the Church in Russia. Bishop Whittingham of Maryland in 1872 attended the Old Catholic Conference in Cologne. Russian and Old Catholic bishops have on several occasions accepted the official courtesies of the American Church. Polish Old Catholics in America have made definite proposals of union. Another century may see some result from these small beginnings.

Missions.-The Episcopal Church has always been breaking ground in new fields. Her first duty was to extend her work in the Western States. Among the typical examples of the home missionaries were the Rt. Rev. Jackson Kemper, missionary bishop of the Northwest, and Dr. James Lloyd Breck. Dr. Breck with two friends founded Nashotah House in Wisconsin, as a training school for missionaries. Later he removed to Minnesota, organized work among Indians at Crow Wing, and laid foundations for Church institutions in Faribault. Bishop H. B. Whipple developed and completed his work. Still later Breck organized the "Associate Mission for the Pacific Coast." His last work was the founding of schools in Benicia, Cal. The first bishops in the Pacific States were William Ingraham Kip of California and Thomas Fielding Scott of Oregon and Washington. Most of the Western States contain one or more organized dioceses. There are still 16 missionary jurisdictions in the United States and four others in American possessions. Bishops have been recently sent to Alaska, Sandwich Islands, the Philippines, and Porto Rico.

There are six foreign missionary jurisdictions, Western Africa (Cape Palmas), Shanghai and Hankow in China, Tokyo and Kioto in Japan, and Cuba. Bishops have also been consecrated for independent churches in Haiti, Mexico, and Brazil. The direction of missionary work is entrusted to a Board of Missions with headquarters in New York. Contributions for missions of all kinds probably amount to a million dollars a year.

Institutions. There are a number of Episcopalian theological schools. The General Theological Seminary in New York is a training school for the whole Church. It was founded in 1817, was removed for a time to New Haven,

Luther. Its conscious life began with him. His powerful personality impressed itself on the movement. But he alone would be quite inadequate to explain it.

The age before the Reformation was a revolutionary age. The Holy Roman Empire was waning; the modern state was taking shape. The economic and social order was profoundly unsettled by the progress of capitalistic industry and commerce. The revival of learning had created new intellectual tastes and interests; scholasticism, a theology and philosophy reverend with age, was put aside by younger minds as insipid and barbaric. The invention of printing made intercourse of mind with mind easy and education a common possession.

Amid so vast and general an upheaval it was impossible for the institutions of mediæval religion, which were so deeply intertwined with all the life of society, to remain unaffected. "Reform of the Church in head and members" was earnestly called for by many of the most eminent religious leaders of the century preceding the Reformation. In the great Reform Councils of the 15th century; in the national movements in England and Bohemia, which were led by Wyclif and Huss; in the efforts of the Franciscans and of the Waldenses and Cathari to restore the primitive simplicity of the Christian life; in the ridicule of poets and the doubt of theologians we trace a swelling tide of reformatory sentiment. There was an abundance of noble spiritual and moral life among the people and clergy; the incessant protests against the existing abuses are the most eloquent testimony to the moral vigor which was itself a product of mediæval religion. But evil is always slow to yield. What seemed intolerable exploitation and oppression to the mass of the people, was an indispensable source of income and a time-honored and lawful custom to powerful individuals and classes. Efforts for reform were again and again frustrated, and so the final explosion of the pent-up forces is historically comprehensible. Without this accumulated dissatisfaction of generations, Luther would have cried to deaf ears. Protestantism can be understood only against this background. It was not at the outset a demand for a change of doctrine, but a practical reformatory movement. The First Rapid Spread of Protestantism.On Hallowe'en of 1517 Luther posted his 95 Theses on Indulgences. They were a halting and uncertain protest against a practice which was endangering the spiritual integrity of the people. He expected to debate his theses with some university professor; instead of that Europe took up the debate. Within a fortnight those 95 sentences had echoed through Germany; within a month through Europe. The popular response gave Luther daring. From 1519 to 1523 he was the voice of a nation aroused and angry. His manifesto (To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation' was a terrific enumeration of the social, political, and religious grievances of Germany. His Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Christian Church attacked those doctrines and practices of the Church which clustered about the seven sacraments. The Pope excommunicated him; Luther burned the Bull. The Diet of Worms demanded that he recant; he refused. The favor of his prince and various international complica

tions combined to defend him. But back of all stood the protecting public sentiment of the nation.

In these earlier years of the Reformation the purpose was not to create a new Church, but to reform the one Church. As fast as the reformatory ideas spread and the resistance of civil and ecclesiastical authorities could be overcome, evangelical preaching was introduced. Almost simultaneously with the movement centring at Wittenberg, the Reformation had found a second focus in German Switzerland under the leadership of Zwingli. About 1525 a third and still more radical reformatory movement began to run through the lower classes of Germany, persecuted by all parties alike under the name of Anabaptism; a movement, the extent and religious power of which are only now coming to be appreciated. From 1536 onward Geneva under the leadership of Calvin's systematizing and organizing genius became the great spiritual centre of Protestantism for Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, Scotland and England. These rapid and almost simultaneous movements show that the Reformation was not an artificial contrivance of a few insurrectionary spirits, but the outcome of a great popular feeling and desire. But that the reformatory uprising finally ended in a permanent schism of the Church was not an absolutely necessary outcome of the situation. A less violent spirit on the part of the reform elements and less reluctance to grant the inevitable reforms on the part of the hierarchy before it was too late, might conceivably have averted that result. Historians will differ as to the apportionment of guilt.

For about half a century Protestantism on the whole advanced victoriously. It encountered the natural instinct of conservatism, the resistance of all classes that were interested in existing conditions, and the opposition of most governments, but it was not yet face to face with the full enthusiasm of religious conviction. At the end of 50 years it was firmly intrenched in Saxony, Hesse, Würtemberg and the Palatinate; in the most important cantons of Switzerland; in the northern Netherlands; in Denmark, Sweden, Prussia and Livonia. In another group of countries the issue was still in doubt. In France the Huguenots were an intelligent and powerful minority, able to wage wars and make treaties with the Crown. The Flemish Netherlands for a time went with the Dutch in revolt against Spanish and Roman Catholic domination, until the Treaty of Arras in 1579 cut them loose. In Bavaria, Poland and Hungary the people were largely Protestant and almost in control of the situation. In the Grand Duchy of Austria it is said that only a thirtieth part of the people remained faithful to the old Church. If the choice of religion had been left entirely to the common people, it is probable that most of the continent of Europe north of the Alps and Pyrenees and west of Russia would have become Protestant. In the British Islands the Reformation began in earnest with the return of Knox to Scotland in 1559 and the reign of Edward VI. in England (1547-53), and was destined to succeed. Ireland remained untouched by it. Italy and Spain reformatory leanings remained confined to groups of educated people. The Reformation did not find the support of govern

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