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with his face turned toward heaven, but horribly hanging downward: his shattered bones pierce through the flesh: his hair, stiffened by anguish, drops bloody sweat: throughout his protracted agony, the poor sufferer alternately begs for water, and death. The crowd, with their eyes fixed on the dial-plate of the Hotel-de-Ville, count the strokes of the clock, shudder in dismay at the dreadful spectacle, and are silent.

But the next morning, the scaffold is again erected for a fresh offender. The horrid exhibition of the preceding evening has failed to prevent a repetition of offence. The throng re-assemble to a renewal of the scene of blood; the executioner washes his crimsoned hands, and mingles with the mass of his fellow-citizens*.

* SENTENCE DE MORT.

Quelle voix sinistre et rétentissante emplissant les rues et les earrefours, se fait entendre jusqu'au sommet des maisons et crie qu'un homme plein de jeunesse va perir, egorge de sang froid par un autre homme, au nom de la société ? le colporteur en courant et hurlant; vend la sentence encore humide, on l'achete pour savoir le nom du coupable et apprendre quel est son crime: on a bientôt oublié l'un et l'autre, c'est une condamnation subite qui viènt epouvanter les esprits au moment où l'on ne s'y attendoit pas. La populace quitte les atteliers et les boutiques et s'attroupe autour de l'échafaud pour examiner de quelle maniere le patient accomplira le grand acte de mourir en public au milieu des tourmens.

Le philosophe, qui du fond de son asyle entend crier la sentence, gemit; et se remettant a son bureau, le cœur gonflé, l'œil attendri, il ecrit sur les loix pénales, et sur ce qui necessite le supplice; il examine si le gouvernement, la loi, n'ont rien a se reprocher; et tandis qu'il plaide la cause de l'humànité dans un cabinet solitaire, et qu'il songe a remporter le prix de Berne, le bourreau frappe avec

A COMMENTARY ON THE MARQUIS DE BECCARIA'S WORK ON CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, ATTRIBUTED TO VOL

TAIRE.

PUBLISHED ABOUT THE YEAR 1770.

ON THE PUNISHMENT OF DEATH*.

Ir hath long since been observed, that a man after he is hanged is good for nothing, and that punishments invented for the good of society, ought to be useful to society. It is evident, that a score of stout robbers, condemned for life to some public work, would serve the state in their punishment, and that hanging them is a benefit to nobody but the executioner. Thieves, in England, are seldom punished with

une large barre de fer ecrase le malheureux sous onze coups, le replie sur une roue, non la face vers le ciel, comme le dit l'arret mais horriblement pendante; les os brués traversent la chair, les che veux horissés par la douleur distillent une sueur sanglante, le putient, dans ce long supplice, demande tour a tour de l'eau et la mort. Le peuple regarde au cadran de l'Hotel de Ville, et compte les heures qui sonnent, il fremit consterne, contemple, et se tait.

Mais le lendemain un autre criminel fait relever l'echafaud, et le spectacle affreux de la veille n'a point empeché un nouveau forfait la populace revient contempler le meme spectacle; le bourreau lave ses mains sanglantes et va se confondre dans la foule hes citoyens,

* Chap. x.

A a

death, but are transported to the colonies. This is also practised in Russia, where not one criminal was executed during the whole reign of the autocratical Elizabeth. Catherine II. who hath succceded her, with much more genius, follows her example: yet crimes are not multiplied by this humanity; and it generally happens that the criminals sent to Siberia, in time become honest people. The same is observed in the English colonies. We are astonished at the change, and yet nothing can be more natural. The condemned are forced to continual labour for a livelihood. The opportunities of vice are wanting. They marry and multiply. Oblige men to work, and you certainly make them bonest. It is well known, that atrocious crimes are not committed in the country, unless when there is too much holiday, and consequently too much idleness, and consequently too much debauchery.

The Romans never condemned a citizen to death, unless for crimes which concerned the safety of the state. These our masters, our first legislators, were careful of the blood of their fellow citizens; but we are extravagant with the blood of ours.

The question hath been frequently debated, whether a judge ought to have the power to punish with death, when the punishment is undetermined by the law? This question was solemnly agitated in the presence of the emperor Henry VII. who decreed* that no judge should have such a power.

There are some criminal cases which are either so new, so complicated, and so unaccountable, as to have escaped the provision of the laws, and which therefore, in some countries, are left to the discretion of the judge. But for one case in

* Bodin de Republica, lib. 3. c. 5.

which the laws permit the death of a criminal whom they have not condemned, there are a thousand, wherein humanity should save whom the laws have condemned to suffer.

The sword of justice is in our hands, but we ought rather to blunt than to sharpen its edge. It remains within its sheath in the presence of kings, to inform us that it ought seldom to be drawn.

There have been some judges who were passionately fond of spilling human blood; such was Jefferies in England, and such in France was the man whom they called Coupe-tête. Nature never intended such men for magistrates, but for executioners.

ON DOMESTIC THEFT.*

IN countries where a trifling domestic theft, or breach of trust, is punished with death, is not the disproportioned punishment dangerous to society? Is it not even an encouragement to larceny? If in this case a master prosecutes his servant, and the unhappy wretch suffer death, the whole neighbourhood holds the master in abhorrence: they perceive that the law is contrary to nature, and consequently that it is a bad law.

What is the result? Masters, to avoid opprobrium, content themselves with discharging the thief, who afterwards steals from another, and gradually becomes familiar with dishonesty. The punishment being the same for a small theft as

* Chap. 18.

for a greater, he will naturally steal as much as he can, and at Jast will not scruple to turn assassin to prevent detection.

If, on the contrary, the punishment be proportioned to the crime; if those who are guilty of a breach of trust be condemned to labour for the public, the master will not hesitate to bring the offender to justice, and the crime will be less frequent; so true it is, that rigorous laws are often productive of crimes.

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