"An infant of a few days or weeks old is made by its parent to hold the rattle-box in "its right hand. After a few corrections, it becomes a second nature to grasp and hold "things in its right hand. A very slight impulse at the beginning, makes a change in "the entire body. For the right hand and arm grow much stronger and more skilful "than the left. Finally, one hemisphere of the brain grows larger than the other, and one lung develops more than the other; each of the five senses develops one of its pair "of organs, so that one side is the special organ of voluntary attention."

Action is the fundamental law of will-training. It is by repeated acts of election and conation that both our general and our special will power is created. There must be repeated acts of choice and volition along all the great lines of will-activity. But action must involve repression as well as stimulation; for as the will, slow to act in some directions, needs excitement, so the will, too quick to act in other directions, needs restraint. Our problem involves not only the development of will power, but also its subjection to judgment and to conscience.

Here let us consider the relation of the child's will to the parent's or the teacher's will. For a time the child is more dependent and helpless than the blind cub in the kennel or the featherless squab in the nest. This is as true of his mental as of his physical life. He learns by authority that this animal is a horse, that this boy is John, that this color is blue, that this character is the letter "a," that this word conveys such an idea, etc. Moreover, he learns by authority that some things are proper, some improper. Nor is it different in morals. He is dependent on others for the knowledge that some things are right and others wrong; and his moral condition begins with obedience or submission to authority. At first, everything must be done for the child; next everything that he does for himself must be chosen for him by another, and he be directed how to do it; and lastly, he must be taught both to choose and to do for himself. Mr. Sully's remark may be taken in a much wider sense than he makes it: "Nothing is more fatal to growth of will than that indolence which shrinks from trial and experiment, and which comes helplessly to parent or nurse crying, 'What shall I do?' or 'Do this for me!'" The phrase "Always tied to your mother's apron strings" is often hurled in scorn by bad boys at good ones: but it nevertheless describes a common type of character that is deserving of pity if not of scorn. To prevent this result we must require the child to decide and to execute. In morals, we do not help but rather destroy the child by forever keeping him in a glass case; the part of wisdom is, to equip him with good habits and principles, healthful appetites and desires, pure affections and purposes, clear judgment and strong will, and then, (I will not say introduce him, but) allow him to be introduced to trial and testing. For a time, we should, if possible, choose, of course unconsciously to him, the time and conditions of the trial, taking pains to fortify him with abundance of motive on the right side; for in this campaign, as Prof. Alexander Bain has so well pointed out, everything depends on winning every battle. Then there is a point for adults as well as children in Alfieri's habit of putting himself beyond temptation. No matter how strong his resolution, Alfieri's love of horses and of riding would often, on a fine day, entice him away from his desk and his work to take an excursion. So he would tell his servant to tie him in his chair by knots that he himself could not unloose, and then to go for a time beyond call; the servant also covering his master with a cloak to protect him from ridicule in case he should be found in that strange condition. But this is only the old device of Odysseus who, having first filled the ears of his companions with wax, lashed himself to the mast of his vessel; and so heard the bewitching music of the Sirens as he glided safely past their fatal shore.

But how shall we stimulate the will in the two directions of action and repression? Happily, all philosophers and teachers, whether free-willists or necessitarians, fully agree on the answer. The will is reached by motives. How do we stimulate an indifferent boy to study? We appeal to curiosity, to the love of knowledge, to emulation, to pride, to love of father and mother, to the desire to be useful, and to many other active principles besides. How do we restrain a boy from drink? We address to him some of the motives already enumerated; also sense of shame, self-respect, fear of the consequences. If I am told, "We also appeal to the sense of freedom," I answer that is only appealing to the We ply the intellect with arguments, which, touched by feeling, become motives to the will. Moreover, we teach the will to wait upon the judgment and the conscience; teach it to resist the cravings of appetite and the solicitations of passion; teach it to wait for that enlightenment from the understanding which will enable it to discriminate the motives as lower and higher. However, in causing the will to wait for the judgment we

man.

must not uproot the spontaneous or impulsive will, the sphere of which is to act in those sudden, emergent cases when we cannot wait for the intellect; nor must we lose sight of that excess of refinement and analysis which paralyzes the energies of resolution.

Only one topic of first importance remains to be handled in this paper. How shall we provide the trial and the testing that are essential to will-training?

It is noteworthy that our schools exist primarily for intellectual purposes; knowledge and intellectual discipline are their avowed ends. This is as true of schools of special as of general training; as true of medical, law, and divinity schools as of colleges and universities. Much or little unconscious tuition of the sentiments, feelings, and choices may accrue to the pupils; much or little conscious attention may be paid to manners and to morals by teachers; but all schools other than retreats, reformatories, and prisons, so far as I know, look immediately to the understanding, and not to the sensibilities, the will, or even to the moral nature. That the intellect is thus thrown forward in all our schemes of school education finds its explanation, no doubt, in that over-valuation of knowledge and mental power, in comparison with other acquisitions and gifts, which is so characteristic of intellectual races, and not in a clear perception of the true philosophy of education; but, happily, the existing arrangement is just as wise as though it were the result of the most profound attention, and the most deliberate choice. Parents sometimes select schools for their children for other than intellectual reasons; they do not so much consider the science, the literature, the art, as they do the tone of feeling, the kind of mauners, the moral life; but in most cases they keep their real purposes to themselves, revealing them at most to the school authorities, while they throw into the child's foreground books and studies, knowledge and learning. This is in strictest harmony with the philosophy of the mind. Were a father to say to his daughter: "I send you to school to develop your feelings;" to his son: "I am resolved to discipline your will;" or to either: "My great concern is your morals ;" and were then to keep his chosen end all the time in view, he would be very certain to defeat his own purpose and accomplish only evil. There are some invaluable ends in education that will not bear, in the cases of children, iteration and reiteration. They are accomplished while we are ostensibly seeking something else. The parent and teacher may, and should, keep them in mind; they may, and should, arrange causes and conditions with reference to special effects; they may, and should, arrange lessons and exercises, both physical and mental, that bear in particular directions; but the things that are made prominent must be in the field that schools are created to cultivate. You can even drive a boy out of the gymnasium by constantly talking "strength" and "health" to him; the boy goes to the gymnasium for zest, for sport, for excellence in the exercises, and the ends that the parent and teacher most value come unconsciously to him. In science or history, the teacher may say, "such a chapter is full of interesting and valuable information;" in mathematics, "such a problem will test your power of analysis;" in literature, "such a poem will give wings to your imagination," or "such an oration, scope to your powers of reasoning;" but woe to the teacher who tells her pupils, "This story will be good for your sensibilities," or " You need this exercise for your wills!" Archbishop Whately advises against "avowed exhortations;" he says men are impatient of direction in respect to their feelings; that they distrust them more than they do their understandings, and that for a speaker to say, "Now, I will exhort you to feel as you ought on this occasion," is to slay himself with his own weapons. Hence the address to the active nature of man must be indirect and unobtrusive. "The feelings, the propensities, and sentiments are not, like the intellectual faculties, under the direct control of the will;" and they are moved most powerfully by indirectly presenting subject-matter adapted to excite them, There is sound wisdom for the teacher as well as the preacher in the Archbishop's counsel.

To what conclusion does our reasoning lead us? Manifestly to this conclusion, that the best discipline of the child, his intellect, his feelings, and his will must be sought in real experience. A soldier may fit himself for war by fighting sham battles; but a child gains nothing by consciously fighting battles for the sake of his will. He is called out and strengthened by real trial, testing, and struggle. Kinglake says the Czar Nicholas kept close at hand a multitude of small wooden soldiers clothed in various uniforms, and then amused himself, and thought that he learned war, by placing them in various combinations. Nicholas failed in his great object; but he did not fail half so signally as the teacher will fail who seeks to gain the ends of will-training by marshalling squads of similar puppets. There is indeed an education for the will in sports and games; that is, in real sports and games, the end of which is amusement and diversion. What the child's will needs is

vigorous study in the school-room, vigorous sport on the play-ground, vigorous employment in work or business (suited to his powers, of course), and close personal contact with moral issues. It is while he is ardently pursuing study or play, work or duty, that he gets the needed development of all the faculties of the soul. To give children nothing serious to do, or not to require them to do what is given, and then to expect them to develop strength in any direction is wholly chimerical.

We are now in a position to see how inconsiderate and foolish are frequent criticisms of school curricula. One critic says, "This course of study is arranged for the intellect; it makes no provision for the sensibilities or the will." All successful curricula must be arranged with primary reference to the intellect. The discipline of the will, particularly, must come, so far as studies are concerned, from a curriculum that is organized directly for another purpose. It is by the mind's laying hold of the studies of the curriculum and measuring its strength by-them, that its full power is called out and strengthened. What studies are in the curriculum does not so much matter, provided they furnish a properly graduated series of trials. No doubt the selection of studies has much more to do with the sensibilities. A course that is rich in history and literature will appeal to the sensibilities much more directly than one rich in mathematics and sciences. But even here the avowed end must be instruction. The preacher's aim is purely ethical and religious; but the preacher cannot gain his end unless he makes his sermons interesting. The wise educator will indeed lay out his scheme of studies, and choose his disciplinary regimen, with reference to the whole mind and character; but he will make a fatal mistake if he puts prominently forward another than instruction as the immediate end in view, It is necessary as the child grows older to widen his vision, to cause him to see that there are other ends to be gained in school than knowledge and training, necessary to criticise his feelings and choices, and to teach him how to take his sensibility and will "in hand; " but instruction must be the avowed aim of the school. Will-training is gained in real life. It is quite true that the teacher very often loses his bearings as respects the second and third faculties of the mind,-true that courses of study are sometimes too exclusively directed to the understanding or some faculty thereof, as analysis or generalization; but the true educator will not lose sight of the cardinal truth that, in the long run, what is best for the mind is best for the faculties.

Throughout this paper I have kept steadily in mind that the will is only one faculty, that the phrases "strong will" and "weak will" are wholly relative, that weakness or wickedness may spring from an overplus of appetite, desire, or passion, as well as from defect of will, and that the faculties are so correlated that the education of one is conditional on the education of all. In a word, I have sought so to cast the paper as to make it indirectly an argument for the training of the whole mind.

DISCUSSION.

SEBASTIAN THOMAS.-The president's inaugural address and Superintendent Hinsdale's paper should suggest to our reading circles the great value of psychological study. CARROLL CUTLER :-I am much pleased with both papers. Were I to make any criticism of the president's address, I would say that it tends in the direction of a collection of definitions rather than a discussion of the subject. But this may be unavoidable. It abounds in nice distinctions.

Concerning the training of the will, it seems to be more within the teacher's personality and influence than a matter of books and tasks. By study and experience the teacher may acquire skill in training the will of his pupils.

ELI T. TAPPAN:-I am thankful for the opportunity of listening to two such papers as we have heard to-day. They should be widely read and studied.

W. D. GIBSON :-These two papers seem to me to take opposite ground concerning the best way of developing and strengthening the will. The one would approach the will through the sensibility, the other through the intellect. My experience leads me to give preference to the former.

I agree with the remark already made to the effect that the personality of the teacher is the important factor.

R. H. HOLBROOK :--I have an instinctive opposition to the philosophy set forth in one part of Mr. Hinsdale's paper. I do not believe in the let-alone plan-the plan of training the will by not training it. I am in favor of a plain straight-forward fight between the teacher and the pupil's will; and I want the teacher to win every time. There is nothing

gained by slipping around or making indirect approaches. Open, straight-forward dealing is always best. I do not see the harm in saying plainly, "I want you, my pupil, to strengthen your will."

B. A. HINSDALE :-Perhaps this will make my meaning clearer: Will was cultivated on my father's farm. When my father said to me, "take the ox-team and the stone-boat and go out and gather up the stones in the meadow," I went. I do not remember how willingly I did it, but I did it; and my will was trained.

We as teachers can best train our pupils' wills by putting them at the work and seeing that they do it.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING.

BY DR. E. E. WHITE.

The one comprehensive end of education is to prepare man to fulfill the purposes of human existence. These purposes include the perfection of man's nature and the discharge of all the obligations and duties which spring from his relations to his fellows, to society, to the state, and to God.

The means to this end of education include (1) the development and training of all man's powers, psychical and physical; (2) the acquisition of knowledge needed for guidance and growth, and (3) the acquisition of skill in the application of power and knowledge to the purposes of life. These three important means,-power, knowledge, and skill -may be considered the immediate ends of education. They include (1) the developing and training of the powers of the intellect and the acquisition of knowledge, or intellectual education; (2) the developing and training of the higher sensibility and the will, or moral education; and (3) the development and training of the bodily powers, or physical education.

In practice these three kinds or functions of education cannot be wholly separated. Intellectual education is conditioned upon moral education and, to some extent, on physical, and moral education depends on the intellect for knowledge and insight, and for many of its highest motives.

Teaching may be defined as the act of applying educational means to the pupil in such manner as to assist him in attaining one or more of the immediate ends of education. These ends or results are attained by the pupil's own activity. The teacher applies the means, presenting the conditions and occasions of action, but it is the pupil's efforts that result in power, knowledge, or skill.

Every act of teaching has its manner or way. The manner of a series of related teaching acts is called a method of teaching. A method of teaching may be defined as a series of teaching acts so arranged as to attain a definite end or result.

Teaching is an art and as such has its underlying principles which determine its methods. There can be no art in the absence of guiding principles, and this is specially true in teaching. The human soul can not be unfolded and enriched by pattern. Automatism is not teaching. The laws which govern the activity and growth of the pupil's powers must guide in their training, and hence the art of teaching is based primarily on the nature of the pupil.

It follows from the above facts that the devising of methods of teaching and courses of instruction for children and youth involves a knowledge of their educable nature, and especially of their psychical nature.

How is this guiding knowledge best attained? It is believed to be best reached by a careful analysis of psychical processes and powers as they are revealed in consciousness, and then determining the relations of these processes to each other and the relative activity of the corresponding powers in the successive periods of school life by a wide and care. ful study of children of different ages and conditions. The true basis of child psychology is general psychology.

The limits of this paper forbid the attempt to state the results reached by such an analysis of psychical phenomena, and only a brief reference can be made to

THE ORDER OF ACTIVITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS.

An analysis of intellectual processes shows that the presentative faculty, including consciousness, sense-perception, and intuition, awakens into activity before the representative, and both of these faculties before the rational or thought faculty. This order is a psychical necessity. It is impossible for the mind to re-call and re-know an object not previously known, and it is equally impossible for the mind to form and apply general concepts of any kind if it be not in possession of individual concepts to compare and generalize. In activity, both cousciousness and sense-perception must precede memory, and memory must precede conception or the forming of general concepts-the simplest form of thought activity.

In like manner and for a like reason, the activity of the several powers of the same faculty and the higher phases of activity of the same power are conditioned upon the lower. Sense-perception is conditioned upon sensation-the primary psychical act-and consciousness is conditioned upon both sensation and sense-perception. The perception of objects, psychical and physical, conditions the intuitive perception of their necessary relations and, in turn, the intuitions condition the completed acts of sense-perception. It is not meant that there is necessarily a conscious interval between these related presentative acts. Consciousness accompanies and blends with the acts and states which it perceives, and the intuitive acts blend with the acts of sense-perception and conscious

ness.

The activity of the several representative powers is subject to the same condition. Memory is conditioned upon simple representation, and the imagination is conditioned upon both simple representation and memory. The higher phases of the imagination are, in like manner, conditioned upon the lower, the creative phase being conditioned upon the constructive, and the constructive upon the simple modifying phases, which appear very early in the child's life, as every nursery shows.

The same order is observed in the activity of the several thought powers. Conception, or the forming of general concepts precedes formal judging and both conception and judging precede reasoning. In other words, reasoning is conditioned upon judging, and judging upon conception.

The order in the activity of the several powers, above indicated, also prevails in their development. The presentative faculty reaches what may be called its natural development before the representative faculty, and both of these before the thought faculty. The last of the representative powers to reach an activity and energy equal to that of senseperception is the creative imagination and the last of the thought powers to reach a like development is the reason, the power of deductive reasoning appearing and developing later than inductive.

There are considerable intervals between the periods in which the higher faculties reach a development equal to that of the lower, but it is an error to infer that there are corresponding intervals between their awakenings into activity. The first conscious acts of perception, (outer or inner), and memory accompany each other; the forming of general concepts is near the synthesis of the related sense-concepts; formal judging follows conception closely; and inductive reasoning appears only a little later. The two powers which awaken into activity latest are the creative imagination and deductive reasoning. But how early do the several intellectual powers become active, and what is their relative activity and energy in the successive periods of the child's life?

The answer to these important questions-can only be determined, as before indicated, by the observation and study of children, and, fortunately, this is not a new field of inquiry. No other beings have been so carefully and lovingly studied as children. The recorded results of these observations, covering centuries, present child-life under many and diverse conditions. This study of children has been greatly stimulated in later years by the writings of Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Jacotot, Fichte, and other educational reformers. It is now receiving the earnest attention of progressive educators both in this country and Europe. The experiments made show that the systematic study of children is rendered difficult by their marvelous power to divine what is in the mind of the questioner and the equally marvelous facility with which they catch and use words, with or without ideas. There is also great difficulty in applying the general conclusions reached to individual cases-a fact due to the marked difference in children of the same age and often of the same family. One child may possess a power of imagination at six years of age, which a brother or sister may not have at sixteen ; and