birds, tigers, and other animals, which had perished from breathing the poisonous air; and even of men, who had unwittingly taken refuge within its fatal precincts.

There are various accidental substances, which are found in the atmosphere, in different situations. One of these is carburetted hydrogen, which constitutes the "fire-damp" of coal-mines, and is similar to the gas which is burned in our streets. It has been found, in great quantity near volcanoes, and over fissures in the earth, and often in the neighbourhood of marshes in hot weather. The boiling appearance which some lakes present, is probably owing to this gas being formed at the bottom, and rising through the water in bubbles. Pure hydrogen is sometimes found in the atmosphere. Then there are various miasmata (as they are called); which exist in the air, in particular regions, and at particular times; though they cannot be detected by any chemical means we have yet been able to employ. One of the principal of these, is marsh-miasma; consisting of the exhalations from marshes, and producing agues. We know nothing of its chemical nature; for air taken from over the foulest marshes, has not been found to differ chemically (so far as science at present enables us to ascertain) from air taken from the most healthy regions. It is this miasma which renders the fens of Lincolnshire so unhealthy, and which reigns, on a still greater scale, over the Pontine marshes near Rome; so that to sleep a night in them, is at the imminent risk of being attacked by ngue. In the unfortunate expedition to Walcheren, during the last war, our army lost ten thousand men, in a few months, from sickness chiefly in duced by this cause. This pestilential exhalation never ascends above a particular level over the district in which it is generated. Among these miasmata, should be reckoned those which produce various epidemic diseases;-such as measles, hooping-cough, small-pox, fevers of various kinds, and those awfully frightful visitations,-the plague and cholera. Notwithstanding, however, the high state of advancement (we had almost said perfection) to which chemical analysis has been brought, and by which the ten thousandth part of a grain of many substances can be ascertained, it has not been able to detect any difference in air impregnated with these various forms of "the pestilence that walketh in darkness," and "the destruction that wasteth at noon day."

It has been a question whether the oxygen and nitrogen gases which compose the atmosphere, are simply mixed, or are chemically combined. We consider the former to be the true state of the case. It might, indeed, have been expected that, if they were only mixed, the oxygen (being the heavier) would collect in the lower part of the atmosphere.

But gases have a natural tendency to mix with each other, however they may differ in weight. Thus, if oxygen and nitrogen be put into a tube together, and confined for years, no separation takes place. Nay, if oxygen be put into the lower part of the tube, and nitrogen into the upper, they become intimately inixed in a few hours. The air, too, has all the properties which should belong to a mere mixture of the two gases which compose it. No change of volume, form, or temperature is occasioned by the mixture; though we should expect some change in one or other of these particulars, if any chemical combination took place. Bodies, likewise, which have an affinity for oxygen, abstract it from atmospheric air, as easily as if there were no nitrogen present. This is the case even with water; for the air which is expelled from rain-water by boiling, has more than the usual proportion of oxygen; which the rain must have imbibed in its passage through the atmosphere.

In order to show the tendency which gases have to mix with each other, Dr. Dalton, of Manchester, put carbonic acid (a very heavy gas) into a vessel and over it, connected by a narrow tube, a vessel containing hydrogen (the lightest gas known); and after a few hours, the two gases were found to be intermixed; although the one is more than twenty times heavier than the other. This mixture is not to be attributed to any chemical affinity between them; for carbonic acid and hydrogen cannot be made to combine with each other. Dalton says that the particles of the same gas repel, while those of different gases attract each other; so that one gas acts as a vacuum to another; only that, from the mechanical obstacle which the particles of one gas present to those of the other, the gas from one vessel does not pervade the other vessel so quickly as it, would if there were a real vacuum.

It has often been asked why the quantity of oxygen in the atmosphere always remains the same, notwithstanding the constant demands which are made upon it, by the respiration of animals, the burning of fires, &c. It has been supposed to be kept up by the respiration of plants; which are said to give out more oxygen than they consume. But the quantity furnished in this way, is not sufficient to account for the whole; and a satisfactory explanation has not yet been given. N. R.

LOSS OF MEMORY. IN December, 1765, an Echevin* of Newbourg, about 60 years of age, being at table, and without having felt any previous head. ache, or pain in any part of his body, began, for the first time, to talk without any con

• Alderman.

nexion. His wife, perceiving that he continued to speak in an unconnected manner, sent for the assistance of Dr. G. Legerus, from whose account the following particulars are extracted:-Having well examined the patient, I judged that his condition was occasioned by a loss of memory; for, so soon as he began a phrase, he remained for an instant thoughtful, and then began another, which he did not finish any more than the first; and sometimes he complained that he did not know what answer to give to the questions put to him. Having asked him if he had a head-ache, or felt pain in any part of his body, he answered that he did not; after which he continued to talk for some days in the same manner. His situation was without any alteration during a fortnight, at the expiration of which, he was seized with a fit of the gout, a disease that was habitual to him. In about another fortnight he recovered his memory so as to be able to converse on different subjects; and nothing remained of his indisposition except a total forgetfulness of characters; which continued for about six weeks, when he found himself perfectly recovered, and able to read with as much facility as before.

W. G. C.

PROVERBS. (For the Mirror.) PROVERBS are said to be the condensed wis. dom of ages: the wise sayings of our own country are probably more in number, and at least equal in terseness and point to those of any other nation. Ray's collection is the largest, but he has left several unexplained, and given in many instances wrong elucidations. The lapse of time has undoubtedly rendered some of them totally inexplicable, particularly the local ones alluding to customs long obsolete, or persons now forgotten; but those of a more general application from the use of words which have long ceased to form part of our English vocabulary, require now the aid of a glossary. The following have been wholly unexplained both by Ray and the Gnomologia of Fuller.

"Two slips for a tester."

A slip was formerly a cant word for a counterfeit piece of the current coin, it was commonly made of brass, and silvered over; tester is not yet obsolete for sixpence. Shakes peare alludes to the slip in Romeo and Juliet. "Rom. What counterfeit did I give you?" "Mer. The slip, sir, the slip !" The obvious meaning of this adage is, that quantity should not be preferred to quality. "What is gotten over the devil's back is spent under his belly." This proverb is derived from the Welsh, "A

gasgler ar farch Malen dan ei dorr ydd a." Malaen, according to the legendary tales of the ancient Britons, signified an evil spirit, or devil, who was supposed to be in possession of a magic horse, on which witches were carried to any place for evil purposes; hence the origin of the proverb, indicating that what is got dishonestly is generally spent in riot and extravagance.

"Essex stiles, Kentish miles, Norfolk wiles, many men beguiles."

What reason our ancestors had for complain. ing of the Essex stiles, or the extraordinary length of Kentish miles, is now a vain conjecture, but the Norfolk wiles can be better understood. The Norfolk men were said to be notoriously given to legal litigation; this is manifested by the statute, 33 Henry VI., which limits the number of attornies allowed to exercise their profession in that county. "A man's a man, though he hath but a hose on his head."

Caps made of woollen were anciently worn in England by the lower classes, long after the introduction of hats, which were chiefly worn by the nobility, and other men of rank. Breeches were formerly called hose, from the Saxon hosa, and were generally made of woollen. I consider the term was applied to the cap, or covering for the head, because made of that material, the covering for the leg is now called hose, and that article in the great manufacturing counties of Leicester and Nottingham, is still distinguished by that name, viz., Jersey hose, which are made of wool, but those made of cotton are usually

called stockings.

"He is in his better blue clothes."

Blue was of old the prevailing colour of the clothes of servants in livery, and the retainers of great men; the city of Coventry was at one time famous for its blue dye, and hence, perhaps, the universality of the colour; the custom of wearing blue is retained to this day in the almost general costume of charity children, and the jackets of watermen. Pliny states that blue was the colour in which the Gauls clothed their slaves, and the bedesman, a privileged beggar, wore a blue gown; but probably the custom in England derived its origin from the facility of getting the article of home manufacture, and as far as regarded the colour, not to be obtained elsewhere. Co

ventry blue was for centuries distinguished for its beauty and durability. The proverb alludes to a person dressed extraordinary fine, and beyond his grade in society.

"The black ox never trod on his foot." This proverb is said to be founded on an historical fact: it is applied to a person to whom misfortune has never happened; the ancient Britons had a custom of ploughing their land in partnership, each person finding

one draught ox; if either of the oxen died, or became disabled during the process of ploughing, the owner of the land (if not his own beast) was compelled to find another animal of equal value, or at his option to give an acre of land to the owner of the dead or disabled animal; this acre was called "erw yr uch ddu," i. e. "the acre of the black ox," and many acres in Wales are at this day known by that title; without this explanation the words convey no conceivable meaning. WM. TOONE.

ORIGIN OF NAPOLEON'S
GENERALS.

THE age of Napoleon was an age of wonders; only witness the following account of the origin of his most celebrated generals. We see Augereau, the hot, the sanguine Augereau, the son of a poor fruiterer, struggling for his livelihood; we see him urging on his course, and at the age of thirty-five, still a private soldier, not despairing of success; we see him at last, in four years, rise from the lowest rank to the highest grade of military command, and created a duke. Then comes Bernadotte, who was destined to be one of the greatest, and by far the most fortunate of Napoleon's lieutenants; he was born at Pan, the capital of Berne, January 26th, 1764. In his sixteenth year, he enlisted as a private soldier into the Royal Marines. In 1792, he was a colonel. In 1806 he was created Prince of Ponte Corvo, and lastly, was elected King of Sweden. Then follows Berthier, the son of a porter of the Hotel de la Querre, who for his signal services was created Marshal of the Empire, Grand Huntsman, and Prince, first of the Neufchatel, then of Wagram. The next in succession is, Bessieres, born at Preissar, August 6th, 1768. He was a private soldier in 1792. In the north of Spain, through his exemplary conduct, he rose to the station of captain in 1796; was created Marshal in 1809, and afterwards Duke of Istria. Kellermann, the son of a citizen of Strasburg, next follows; he rose from the rank of a private soldier to that of Duke of Valmy. The impetuous and valiant Lannes now excites our admiration and wonder; born at Lectonre, April 11th, 1769, of indigent parents. He at an early age enlisted into the army. He was sent ambassador into Por tugal, and on his return became Marshal of France, and ere long Duke of Montebello. Macdonald, whom we shall next cite, was born in the little town of Sancerre, November 17th, 1765. At an early age he entered into the army as lieutenant; he was created marshal, and after Duke of Tarentum. Lefebvre was born of humble parents, on the 25th of October, 1755. We see him in September 1793 raised to the rank of captain; in December, the same year, to the rank of general,

and lastly to the dukedom of Dantzie. Massena, one of the ablest of Napoleon's generals, was born at Nice, May 6th, 1758. At an early age, he was, by a relative, introduced to a maritime life, but soon becoming disgusted with the sea, he subsequently entered the army as a private soldier. His promotion at first was not at all rapid; and having lost all hopes, retired to his own nation, and married. The stirring affairs of the revolution called his attention once morè to a soldier's life; his promotion was now astonishingly rapid, for in 1793 he became general, soon after, Duke of Rivoli; and to close his career, was created Prince of Essling. Moncey was born at Besançon, July 31st, 1754. The education he received was good, as his father was a lawyer. He enlisted as a private soldier, of his own accord; his parents, however, obtained his discharge. But at last, in 1790, when at the age of forty-six, he became a sub-lieutenant of the dragoons, and in 1804 was created Duke of Conegliano. Mortier was born at Cambrai, 1768. In the year 1791 he was captain, and lastly, received the title of Duke of Steriso. The great Murat next engages our attention; he was born March 25th, 1767, of humble parents, his father being only an inn-keeper, of Bastide, near Cahors. When he was in his twentieth year he enlisted into a regiment of chasseurs, and shortly after, for his gallantry and bravery, was made general of division; in 1805 created Grand Duke of Berg and Cleves; and in 1808 had the crown of Naples conferred on him. The end of this extraordinary man, whose life must have appeared to him a dream, was, as is well known, tragical; he was shot, and himself gave the word to the soldiers to fire, saying, "Save my face-aim at my heart-fire!" errors of Murat may be ascribed to a bad education; he wanted moral energy, reflec. tion, and patience.

The

Ney, the "bravest of the brave," was born at Sarre Louis, January 10th, 1769. His father was a poor tradesman. In 1787 he filled the inferior station of private soldier, and in 1793 was lieutenant. The year fol lowing he was brought under the notice of General Kleber, and in 1796 received the title of general himself. He was also created Prince of Moskwa. A miserable and untimely end, however, awaited this prodigy of military genius; like Murat, he was shot, and when at the place of execution, in a firm voice, gave the word, saying, "Soldiers, fire!" His father died in 1826, aged nearly 100 years. His love for his son was so great, that at his death, in 1815, his family fearing the effect which the sad event might produce on him, kept it a secret amongst themselves. By the mourning of his daughter, however, he understood that some tragical event had taken place; but he never made

We still think it must have been the profusion of lamps that upset our stomach-our friends said it was the "rack punch.”

The whole area of the theatre was covered with the most animated medley of costumes possible to conceive. We were not overrun by Greeks, field-officers, and Swiss peasants, as in London; but the gayest and most pic turesque dresses were everywhere to be seen. "It was the ball scene in Gustavus realized. Twelve splendid chandeliers depended from the ceiling, and at the end of the stage was Magnus, in all the glory of a leader, with a white waistcoat on, surrounded by nearly eighty musicians, who were playing the quadrilles, as if their life and soul was in them, as well as the dancers. Crowds of other masks were likewise in the boxes as mere spectators of the scene, but there was quite enough to attract our attention below, without seeking amusement up stairs. The order of dancing was a waltz and galoppe alternately, after every two quadrilles; but the galoppe was the fun. Oh! what a stirring chase it was. Down the declivity of the stage, as hard as we could tear, to the boarded pit, and then whirling wildly round underneath the boxes, and up again to the back of the theatre. It was indeed a galoppe d'enfer, as our partner observed, and to Clapisson's inspiring "Postillon de Ma'm Ablou," we thought everybody would have gone mad. Not only was the air of that favourite song introduced, but we had the accompaniments of the crack of the postillion's whip, and the jangling of the diligence bells. We must have them in London for our approaching season, for they are a delicious set. Then came the galoppe from "Le Domino Noir;" then the galoppe from "La fille du Danube," and a dozen others equally spirited, and waltzes by Labitsky, Strauss, and Julian, without end. The quadrilles were mostly too crowded, but all nade way for the other dancers.

As the refreshments in the foyer of the theatre were enormously dear, at least for Paris, we fed at the Café de l'Opera Comique, next door to the theatre, and opposite the Bourse. It was open all night long, as may be supposed, and an occasional bottle of "limonade gayeuse" was very refreshing, especially when half choked with dust.

In the salle, as usual, the municipal guard and gens d'armes were in attendance, and more than one unfortunate wight was condemned to the solitude of the cachot below the box staircase for the rest of the evening, for transgressing the known and established rules of the ball-room. As the females alone covered their faces, we recognized, as we had anticipated, many fellow students amidst the throng with whom we were acquainted, and were at no lack for introductions to partners; indeed we completely danced a pair of patent prettily polished pumps to pieces-we like alliteration.

Werthink it is not often that the English attend these balls as dancers, although many of our countrymen were in the boxes as spectators, for we heard "Tiens! c'est un Anglais” in a tone of surprise often repeated behind us. Be this as it may, if they do not go to these balls when in Paris, and enter into the spirit of them, as our foreign brethren do, they lose a great deal of amusement. >^

The worst part of the story was turning out at six in the morning to come home. The half-deserted streets look cold, dark, and cheerless, and we were not sorry to tumble into bed, where we had a most confused dream of chandeliers, music, paysannes, municipal guards, and fairy-like forms flitting before us, with brigands' hats, and postillions' boots. KNIPS. Megh

THOSE husbandmen who have possessed some knowledge of natural history, have not only been better enabled to cultivate their plants, and protect them from the attacks of destructive animals, but they have learnt thereby to know what creatures are harmless and useful, and ought to be protected and encouraged, either for the pleasing sight and sounds they afford, or the good that they do. But many yet ignorantly supposing that all wild animal that presume to peck about their grounds must be foes, destroy even those which on closer o)servation will be found to be harmless, or, perhaps, useful. Thus the very creatures that come to relieve them from those which are really injurious, are wilfully and remaselessly killed, notwithstanding their innoence and utility. Rooks, for example, are filled by many persons. It is certainly true that, in harvest and seed-time, rooks do som mischief, but it is a very little in comparion to the great good they do in spring, whe their food, and apparently their only food is the grubs of insects, chiefly those of th cockchafer, (melolontha vulgaris,) and f other destructive species, to procure whichhey are so eager, that they will even flow the plough; and, moreover, it is well nown to practical entomologists that the eighbourhood of a rookery is not the ice where many, if any, insects are to be ford. Some years ago, the proprietors of sop extensive farms in Devonshire paid lar sums of money to those who destroyed trooks; but what was the consequence? Ding the three following years, destructive insts multiplied to a greater extent than ever, id caused the failure of almost the whole othe crops;-a circumstance which made tharmers so sen