ful Departed.-A very solemn festival of the Romish | Bishop Hall, in his 'Satires,' written in the time of Church, which has masses and ceremonies appropriate James I., mentions to the occasion, designed in favour of the souls of all the dead. Odillon, abbot of Cluny, in the ninth century, first enjoined the ceremony of praying for the dead on this day in his own monastery; and the like practice was partially adopted by other religious houses until the year 998, when it was established as a general festival throughout the western churches. To mark the pre-eminent importance of this festival, if it happened on a Sunday, it was not postponed to the Monday, as was the case with other such solemnities, but kept on the Saturday, in order that the church might the sooner aid the suffering souls; and that the dead might have every benefit from the pious exertions of the living, the remembrance of this ordinance was kept up by persons dressed in black, who went round the different towns, ringing a loud and dismal-toned bell at the corner of each street, every Sunday evening during the month, and calling upon the inhabitants to remember the deceased suffering the expiatory flames of Purgatory, and to join in prayers for the repose of their souls.'-Brady's Clavis Calendaria.

5. The anniversary of the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605, and of the landing of King William III. in 1688; observed in the British dominions as a holiday, and celebrated by the Church of England by a form of prayer with thanksgiving. There is also a popular celebration of this day. From an early hour, the boys go about collecting materials for a bonfire, or money wherewith to purchase them. In some, perhaps most places, they carried with them a frightful figure composed of an old suit of clothes stuffed with straw, to represent Guy Fawkes. They called on the passengers and householders to remember Guy,' or shouted some balderdash rhymes. In the evening the bonfire is lighted, with Guy Fawkes in the middle of it, amidst tumultuous merriment. The firing of guns as a token of rejoicing, we are glad to say, is now discontinued on this day, and we trust the other absurd usages will soon likewise disappear.

11. St Martin's Day, or Martinmas, in the Church of England calendar. Popularly, this is one of the most remarkable days of the year, especially in Scotland, where Whitsunday and Martinmas are the two great terms for leases and engagement of servants, the latter being that at which the occupation of farms usually commences. Formerly, it was a quarterly term day in England: a payment of corn at Martinmas occurs in the Doomsday Survey. On the continent, from an early age, the day has been distinguished convivially; and this apparently for two reasons-namely, that now the people first tasted the wines of the season, and killed the animals required to be salted for their winter provisions. The entrails of these animals, prepared as sausages, or blood-puddings, became the subject of an immediate feast, while the rest of the meat was salted and set aside. In some countries, also, the goose, which is elsewhere enjoyed at Michaelmas, was now presented. The killing of beeves at Martinmas for winter provision was formerly universal in northern Europe, in consequence of there being no means of keeping them alive in winter; since the improvement of husbandry in some countries, the custom has been given up, and fresh meat used all the year round. The feasting upon the entrails was equally universal. So much was all this associated with Martinmas, that in Scotland a beeve killed at that time was called a mart, or mairt. In the old book of laws attributed (erroneously) to David I. of Scotland, it is provided that the fleshours sall serve the burgessis all the time of the slauchter of Mairts.' In Northumberland, also, a Martinmas bullock is called a mart. Tusser, in his curious metrical treatise on husbandry, written in the time of Henry VIII., says

When Easter comes, who knows not than
That veal and bacon is the man?
And Martinmas beef doth bear good tack,
When country folks do dainties lack.

-Dried flitches of some smoked beeve, Hang'd on a writhen wythe since Martin's eve. It appears that the contents of the puddings, as made in England, were composed of blood, suet, and groats; and there was an enigmatical proverb thence arising, that blood without groats was nothing,' meaning that birth without fortune was of little value. Down to near the end of the last century there was not a family above the poorest condition in the rural districts of Scotland which had not a mart, or a share in one, and salted meat was the only food of the kind used in winter; now, there is no such practice known. Martin, in whose honour this festival was at first instituted, is said to have been born in Lower Hungary about 316, and to have originally been a soldier. After a number of miraculous adventures, he settled as a hermit in the hollow of a rock near Tours in the south of France, where he was greatly venerated. He died bishop of Tours in 397. When a few fine days occurred about this time of the year, they were called St Martin's summer.

23. St Clement's Day, in the Church of England calendar. Clement is spoken of by St Paul as one of his fellow-labourers. Monkish imagination has supplied him with a history and a martyrdom. He is said to have been thrown into the sea with an anchor fixed about his neck. An anchor is therefore assigned to him as an emblem of this the metropolis presents a conspicuous memorial in the anchor which forms the vane of the church of St Clement Danes, in the Strand. St Clement is held as the patron saint of the blacksmiths. It was formerly customary for boys, and the lower class of people generally, to go about on this day begging for liquor, wherewith they made a regale at night. Hence, in a certain class of old almanacs, the day was signified by the figure of a pot.

29. This is one of the days on which Advent may commence. Advent (literally the Coming) is a term applied from an early period of ecclesiastical history to the four weeks preceding Christmas, which were observed with penance and devotion, in reference to the approaching birth of Christ. There are four Sundays in Advent, the first of which is always the nearest Sunday to St Andrew's Day (November 30).

30. St Andrew's Day.-The festival day of this saint is retained in the Church of England calendar. St Andrew was one of the apostles. His history, as related by the Catholic writers, represent him as martyred in the year 66 at Patræ in Greece, upon a cross of the form of the letter X, which accordingly is still recognised as St Andrew's Cross. A supposed relic of this cross, carried to Brussels in the middle ages, caused its figure to be adopted as a badge for the knights of the Golden Fleece. Some relics of the apostle himself are said to have been carried by a Greek devotee named St Regulus, to Scotland, where they were placed in a church built at a place which subsequently became distinguished by the name of St Andrews. St Andrews became the seat of the Scottish primacy; and from this cause probably it was that St Andrew was in time considered as the patron saint of Scotland. In that country, however, there is scarcely any observance of this day in any manner; it is only when Scotsmen are abroad, and have occasion to select a day for an annual convivial meeting, that St Andrew's Day comes into notice. There used to be a procession of Scotsmen on this day in London, with singed sheeps' heads borne before them. It is remarkable that St Andrew is also a tutelar saint of the Russians, probably in consequence of the Greek locality of his martyrdom. There is an ancient and widely-prevalent custom connected with St Andrew's Day, to which Luther has adverted. Maidens, on the eve of this day, stripped themselves, and sought to learn what sort of husbands they were to have by praying in these terms- Oh, St Andrew, cause that I obtain a good pious husband; to-night show me the figure of the man who will take me to wife.'

least, has been the subject of a curious superstition. The ancients supposed that it built its nest on the ocean, and brought forth its young at the winter solstice. To account for the preservation of the nest and young amidst the severity of the season, they imagined that the bird had a power of lulling the raging of the waves during the period of incubation; and this power was believed to reside in its song.

Natural History-In this month the business of vegetation experiences its death. The trees are now thoroughly stripped of their foliage. It is reputed as a gloomy month; but the temperature is sometimes agreeable in the earlier part of it, and its average for the whole term is 43 degrees. A considerable number of plants remain in flower throughout November. The gloom of the month is said to have a depressing effect on the spirits of the English nation; let those who are liable to such influences lay to heart the following remarks of Johnson in the Idler:'- The distinction of seasons is produced only by imagination acting upon luxury. To temperance every day is bright, and every hour is propitious to diligence. He that resolutely ex-day following this festival. cites his faculties, or exerts his virtues, will soon make himself superior to the seasons, and may set at defiance the morning mist and the evening damp, the blasts of the east and the clouds of the south. Instead of looking for spring with anxious and caring mind, enjoy the present day; there are pleasures even in November.'

DECEMBER.

So called as being originally the tenth of the Roman year. Our Anglo-Saxon ancestors called December winta monat-that is, winter month; but after becoming acquainted with Christianity, this name was changed into heligh monat, or holy month, with reference to the celebration of the nativity on its twenty-fifth day.

6. St Nicholas's Day.-Retained in the Church of England calendar. St Nicholas was Archbishop of Myra, in Greece, A. D. 342. He is regarded as the patron saint of children and of mariners, probably in consequence of his benevolent zeal in the protection of orphans and stranded seamen. Churches built near the sea are in many instances dedicated to St Nicholas. He is also said to have shown much kind interest in the fate of young women, sometimes secretly throwing purses into the chamber-windows of those who lacked dowries. Hence has arisen a custom prevalent over a large part of the Christian world. On his eve, presents are hid in the shoes of those to whom any one wishes to give a pleasing surprise; and these, being found in the morning, are jocularly said to be gifts from St Nicholas. St Nicholas is also considered as the tutelar saint of scholars, or clerks, and of robbers. The fraternity of parish-clerks have thought themselves entitled by their name to adopt him as their patron. How robbers should have come to be called St Nicholas's clerks, or St Nicholas's knights, it is not easy to see, unless it were from the coincidence of his name with one of the slang appellations of the devil.

13. St Lucia's Day.-Retained in the Church of England calendar. St Lucia was a young lady of Syracuse, who obtained a high character for a devout and charitable life, and died in the year 304. The last of the four series of Ember Days commences on the Wednes

16. O Sapientia. This day is so marked in the church calendar, probably from an anthem sung on this day in the Romish Church beginning, O sapientia quæ ex ore altissimi prodidisti,' &c.

21. St Thomas the Apostle, a festival of the English Church. It was customary for women to go a-gooding on St Thomas's Day; that is, they went about begging money, and presenting in return sprigs of palm, and bunches of primroses, probably with a view to the decoration of their houses against Christmas.

25. Christmas Day, observed from an early period as the nativity of our Lord, and celebrated not only by the religious ceremonies from which the name of the day is partly taken, but by popular festivities of the most joyful kind. In England, Christmas is held by the church as a solemn festival, and distinguished by the complete cessation of business-an honour paid to no other day besides Good Friday. But within the last hundred years, the festivities once appropriate to the day have much fallen off. These at one time lasted with more or less brilliancy till Candlemas, and with great spirit till Twelfth Day; but now a meeting in the evening, little different from a common dinner party, though sure to be marked by a roast and plum-pudding, and pretty generally followed by a game at cards, is all that distinguishes Christmas in most families.

In former times the celebration of Christmas began in the latter part of the previous day-Christmas Eve. The house was first decked with holly, ivy, and other evergreens. Candles of an uncommon size were then lighted, under the name of Christmas Candles; an enormous log, called the Yule Clog, or Christmas Block, was laid upon the fire: the people sat round, regaling themselves with beer. In the course of the night, small parties of songsters went about from house to house, or through the streets, singing what were called Christmas Carols-simple popular ditties, full of joyful allusions to the great gift from God to man in the Throughout the middle ages, there was a universal Redeemer. A mass was commenced in the churches custom of electing a kind of mock bishop on St Nicho- at midnight, a custom still kept up in the Catholic las's Day. A boy, possibly taken from amongst the Church. At one period, the people had a custom of choristers, was chosen by his associates as bishop, ar-wassailing the fruit-trees on this evening; that is, they rayed in suitable vestments, and indued with appro- took a wassail bowl, threw a toast from it to the tree, priate powers, which he enjoyed for some days. The and sung a song, expecting thus to secure a good crop infant prelate was led along in a gay procession, bless-next season. It was thought that, during the night, ing the grinning multitude as he went, and he was even all water was for a short time changed into wine, and allowed to sing mass and to mount the pulpit and preach. Edward I., in his way to Scotland in 1299, heard vespers by a boy bishop at the chapel of Heton, near Newcastle. The boy bishop at Salisbury is said to have had the power of disposing of any prebends that fell vacant during his term of office; and one who died at that time had a monument in the cathedral, representing him in his episcopal robes. Mr Warton is of opinion that we see some faint traces of the rise of dramatic entertainments in the strange mummeries connected with the election of the Boy Bishop.

8. The Conception of the Blessed Virgin in the Romish and English calendars.

11. The fourteen days from this to Christmas Eve were called the Halcyon Days, and supposed to be, in their calm and tranquil character, an exception from the season. The term, which is now a regular adjective in our language, is derived from the bird, kingfisher or halcyon, which, from the days of Aristotle at

that bread baked on this eve would never become mouldy. These notions are essentially foolish; but as they are all well-meant adorations of the simple spirit of the people, they should not be hastily condemned.

The carols were more generally sung in the morning of Christmas Day. A contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine,' in 1811, describing the manner in which Christmas is celebrated in the North Riding of Yorkshire, says About six o'clock on Christmas Day I was awakened by a sweet singing under my window; surprised at a visit so early and unexpected, I arose, and looking out of the window, I beheld six young women and four men welcoming with sweet music the blessed morn.' It may scarcely be imagined how delightfully at such a moment would fall upon the halfslumbering ear such strains as the following:

God rest you, merry gentlemen,
Let nothing you dismay,

For Jesus Christ our Saviour

Was born upon this day,
To save us all from Satan's power,
When we were gone astray.

Oh tidings of comfort and joy,
For Jesus Christ our Saviour
Was born on Christmas Day.

In Bethlehem in Jewry

This blessed babe was born,
And laid upon a manger,

Upon this blessed morn;
The which his mother Mary
Nothing did take in scorn.

Oh tidings, &c.

Christmas carols are amongst the oldest of English songs. A collection of them was printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1521. They are still printed on single sheets, which are sold by chapmen or dealers in cheap literature. There is also more than one modern collection of these curious productions of modern ages.

this time of the year, and St Stephen's Day was that chosen by most people for the purpose. On this day, also, blessings were implored upon pastures.

27. St John the Evangelist's Day, observed as a festival by the Church of England. Because John drank poison, without dying in consequence, it was supposed that those who put their trust in him were safe from all injury from that cause.

23. Childermas, or Holy Innocent's Day, observed by the Church of Rome with masses for the children killed by Herod. It was considered unlucky to marry, or to begin any work, on Childermas Day. The learned Gregory says, 'It hath been a custom, and yet is elsewhere, to whip up the children upon Innocent's Day morning, that the memory of Herod's murder might stick the closer, and in a moderate proportion to act over the "crueltie again in kinde."'

31. The last day of the year is called in Scotland Hogmanay, a word which has fruitlessly exercised the wits of the etymologists. The Scottish people, overlooking Christmas in obedience to the behests of their religious teachers, have transferred the merriment of the season to Hogmanay and New Year's Day, which they accordingly abandon to all kinds of festivity. Handsel Monday, or the first Monday of the year, is also an occasion of festivity. On Hogmanay, the children in small towns perambulate amongst the neighbours of the better class, crying at their doors, ‘Hogmanay!' or sometimes the following rhyme :

Hogmanay, trollolay,

The religious service of Christmas Day receives but a small share of attention from old writers. In fact, the day was chiefly distinguished by the popular festivities. Its grand feature was a feast, of great abundance, and at which a few particular dishes regularly appeared, above all, plum-porridge and mince-pie. In every great hall, whether of a man of rank or of a great corporation, there was a boar's head ushered in by minstrelsy. It was customary for the rich and noble to treat their humble dependents, and to meet with them on terms of equality, as considering that all men are regarded alike by the religion of him whose natal day they are celebrating. A sort of license prevailed. A branch of the mistletoe being hung up in the hall, or over the doorway, the youths were understood to have a right to kiss any maiden whom they could inveigle under it. At York, the freedom of the time was so extreme, that there were regular proclamationsa het pint,' and go to the houses of their friends, to allowing women of evil repute and gamblers to come to the city and walk about openly for a certain number of days. It was also customary to elect a person as Lord of Misrule, who went about taking the lead in every kind of extravagant sport and merriment which the wit of man could devise. The election and functions of this personage were perhaps the most singular part of the festival. According to Stow, at the feast of Christmas, there was in the king's house, wherever he lodged, a Lord of Misrule, or Master of merry Disports, and the like had ye in the house of every Nobleinan of honour or good worship, were he spiritual or temporal. The Mayor of London, and either of the Sheriffs, had their several Lords of Misrule, ever contending, without quarrel or offence, who should make the rarest pastime to delight the beholders. These lords, beginning their rule at Allhallond Eve, continued the same till the morrow after the Feast of the Purification, commonly called Candlemas Day: in which space there were fine and subtle disguisings, masks, and mummeries, with playing at Cards for Counters, Nayles, and Points in every House, more for pastimes than for gaine.'

The management of the plays usually acted at Christmas in the halls of colleges and law societies, fell to the care of the Lord of Misrule. The particular functionary elected in the inns of court in London, after exercising all the duties and going through the parade of royalty for a fortnight, at an expense of a couple of thousand pounds, was knighted at Whitehall by the real sovereign of the land.

In Scotland, before the Reformation, the religious houses had a similar officer for the Christmas revels, called the Abbot of Unreason, whose particular functions are graphically portrayed by Scott in his novel of The Abbot.' The custom was suppressed by statute in 1555.

26. St Stephen's Day, observed as a festival of the Church of England. There was formerly a widely-prevalent dogma that it was good to bleed horses about

Gie's of your white bread and none of your gray; in obedience to which call, they are served each with an oaten cake. In the evening, there are merry makings, which are always prolonged to twelve o'clock, which has no sooner struck than all start up excitedly, and wish each other a happy new year. Small venturous parties take a kettle with hot ale posset, called wish them a happy new year. Whoever comes first, is called in that house the First Foot,' and it is deemed necessary on such occasions to offer the inmates both a piece of cake and a sip from the posset kettle, otherwise they would not be lucky throughout the year. This is called First-Footing. Next day, all people go about among all other people's houses; presents are given amongst relations; and dinner-parties close the evening. Formerly, the first Monday of the year was also much observed as a festive day, and time for giving presents, from which latter circumstance it was called Handsel Monday. The Handsel Monday, old style, is still, in some rural districts, the chief feast day of the season. On the evenings of Christmas, Hogmanay, New Year's Day, and Handsel Monday, parties of young men and boys went about disguised in old shirts and paper vizards, singing at the various houses for a small guerdon. These guisarts, as they were called, also acted a rustic kind of drama, in which the adventures of two rival knights, and the feats of a doctor, were conspicuous. Almost everywhere in Scotland the festive and frolicsome observances of the New Year tide have very much declined.

Natural History.-December is the darkest, but not the coldest month of the year: the general average temperature is 40 degrees. The deciduous trees are now completely stripped of their foliage, and the ground often shows a snowy covering, although it is rarely that there is much strong ice in December. Amidst the general desolation, the pines and other evergreens form an agreeable resting-place for the eye. The rose also continues to blow during this month. Formerly, the Glastonbury thorn was a great wonder in England, being supposed to blow regularly on Christmas Day. The monks of the abbey there represented it as the staff of Joseph of Arimathea, which, being inserted by him in the ground, had miraculously sprouted out into a living tree. But it is now ascertained to have been only a member of a certain species of thorn well known in the East for blowing in the depth of winter.

THE PRIVATE DUTIES OF LIFE.
UTIES

THE temporal duties enjoined on rational beings may be thus classed:-1. Duties which one owes to himself. -2. Duties which arise from domestic relations.3. Duties which arise in the communities of which each one is peculiarly a member.-4. Duties which arise from the political relations of society.-5. Duties which arise between individuals who are of different nations. We propose in the meantime to treat of those duties which a rational being may be said to owe to himself, or, as they are generally termed, PRIVATE DUTIES.

LIFE AS A WHOLE.

beings, as he differs from them in figure and appearance. As society is a consequence of the Creator's will, as the proper divisions of labour are a necessary consequence of society, it is not irrational to suppose that individuals are born with adaptation to labour in some departments, and not in others. In the early stages of life these qualities are sometimes developed, whether they happen to be understood or not. But almost immediately after gaining some hold on life, all human beings become subject to the incidents which tend to strengthen original qualities, or to obscure or stop their progress, and even to suppress them, and engraft on Life is a succession of parts-infancy, youth, man- the original stock those which are entirely different. hood, maturity, decline, old age, and death. What man It would be unjust to make infancy responsible for the becomes depends in part on his genealogy: as his in- evils and errors which arise in this manner; but cerfancy is, so will be his youth; as his youth is, so will tainly those who have the guidance of infancy are rebe his manhood; as his manhood is, so will be his ma- sponsible, and will be held to be so. Children have a turity; as maturity is, so will be decline; as decline is, right to complain, and society has a right to complain, so will be old age. If youth be passed in idleness, igno- if duties to children be neglected; and it is needless rance, folly, and crime, how can one hold his way in the to remark that there is another and inevitable accountworld, side by side with the intelligent, the worthy, and ability of a far more serious character. We shall have the virtuous? If manhood has been passed in low pur- occasion to remark on the very onerous and important suits, in rooting in the heart evil propensities, in wast-duties of those who, according to the order of natural ing natural vigour, what awaits one in old age but poverty, pity, and contempt? If infancy be devoted to the reasonable expansion of the physical and intellectual powers if knowledge of duty be acquired, and be rightly used, will not manhood be worthy, maturity respectable, decline honoured, and old age venerable? Life, then, must be taken as one event, made up of many successive ones. On these unquestionable truths we found all that is worthy of notice in the following pages.

PURPOSES OF LIFE.

and necessary law, are intrusted with forming and giving effect to natural qualities. This matter, however, properly belongs to another place.

YOUTH.

We come now to a period when accountability begins, in all the relations which were placed in the division of duties. If it be asked at what age this is to be fixed, we answer, that the good sense of judicial law recog nises that a child may be a witness in solemn judicial proceedings, when inquiries addressed to him are so answered as to make it certain that he understands the nature and the obligation of an oath. This may be at the age of ten or twelve years. But the perception of right and wrong, and the sense of duty, begin at an earlier age. There certainly are children of the age of eight years who have a very clear sense of moral propriety; and very many who, between that age and twelve, can discern and reason on right and wrong, and arrive at a very sound judgment. We shall presume that all into whose hands this sheet may fall will be fully capable of comprehending its purpose, and of

We believe that human life, rightly understood, and rightly used, is a beneficent gift; and that it can be so understood and used. It is irreconcilable to reason that man was sent into this world only to suffer and to mourn; it is from his own ignorance, folly, or error that he does so. He is capable of informing himself; the means of doing this are within his power. If he were truly informed, he would not have to weep over his follies and errors. It is not pretended that every one can escape at once from a benighted condition, and break into the region of reason and good sense. But it is most clear, from what is well known to have hap-judging of its fitness to be useful to them. We must pered in the world, that each generation may improve upon its preceding one; and that each individual, in every successive period of time, may better know the true path, from perceiving how others have gone before him. There can be no miracle in this. It will, at best, be a slow progress: and the wisdom arrived at in one age must command the respect of succeeding ones, and receive from them the melioration which they can contribute. We understand nothing of what is called the perfectibility of human nature; but we understand this, that if human nature can be made to know wherein its greatest good consists, it may be presumed that this good will be sought after and obtained. Man was created on this principle, he acts on this principle, although he is seen so frequently to make the most deplorable and distressing mistakes. If it be not admitted that mankind will always strive to obtain whatsoever seems to them good, and strive to avoid whatsoever seems to them evil, their moral teaching and training is in vain. If this principle be admitted, the sole inquiry is-what then is good and what is evil?

INFANCY.

Every human being comes into the world with physical and intellectual qualities, propensities, and aptitudes, which distinguish him as much from all other No. 79.

assume, then, that we are speaking to those who are willing to be instructed in serious things, and that they will not reject instruction from any source, however unpretending it may be, if it come to them in a manner which they can reconcile with their own reason, and with their own duty to themselves. Young persons think that they can see for themselves, and that they need not to be told what others have seen. But let us reduce this to common sense. Suppose a person to be under the necessity of going from the place in which he has lived, and which is familiar to him, to a far distant place. Let it be supposed that the road he must travel is crossed by many roads, and that he is frequently to find himself at points where several roads are seen, either one of which, so far as he can discern, may be the right one. Will it be of use to him to have been told, before he departs, which of these many roads to take? Will it help him onward to his destination, when he is bewildered, and unable to decide for himself, to find some one who can assure him of the right course? Life is a journey. Every step we take in it brings us to something new, something unexpected, and perhaps entirely different from that which was looked for. Those who have gone through it before us have left us their instructions in what manner it is to be undertaken and accomplished. They tell us of their own troubles and

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