The Defenders;' and the year A.D. 620 was denomi- | ascertained the hate of his enemies, and the extent of nated the accepted year.' On Mount Akaba, near his own power, proceeded to lay aside the arts of perMecca, seventy-three proselytes were soon after added suasion and patient endurance, whereby he had hitherto to their number, and swore to defend the prophet from sought to propagate his tenets; and elated by the deall insult, as they defended their own wives and chil-votion of his disciples and his reception at Medina, he dren. If,' said they to the apostle of God, we be slain in thy cause, what shall be our reward?' He answered Paradise.' Then' said they, Stretch forth thy right hand,' and he did so; then they took the oath of obedience, promising rather to die than be perjured. Mohammed now established twelve apostles of Islamism, which was the name he gave to his religion, himself being the prime instructor and chief of all the true believers; and he then sent away the Ansars, his followers, and his family, to Medina, for security, and remained behind at Mecca, attended only by Abubeker and his son-in-law Ali. framed henceforth the revelations of the Koran in a tone which proclaimed him a persecutor, and empowered his followers to make war against all opposers. The successful battle of Beder followed soon after; and he then made known those doctrines which have rendered the arms of the Mussulmans so formidable-namely, 'that no one can escape his destiny; inasmuch as the man whose days are not complete, will escape unhurt from a shower of arrows, when he whose fatal term has arrived, cannot escape death by any precaution whatsoever.' The second incitative is that which the present occasion furnished him with:- The sword,' exBy the protection which his uncle Abu Taleb had claimed the prophet, is the key of heaven and of hell; extended to Mohammed, he had been preserved thus a drop of blood shed in the cause of God, a night spent far from his enemies; but the charge and dignity of the under arms, is of more avail than two months of fasting priest and guardian of the Kaaba having now, by the and prayer. Whosoever falls in battle, his sins are death of Abu Taleb, become the post of a member of forgiven: at the day of judgment his wounds shall be the family of Ommiyah, a declared enemy to the family resplendent as vermilion, and odoriferous as musk; the of Haschem, to which Mohammed belonged, the Ko-loss of his limbs shall be replaced by the wings of angels reishites, irritated and alarmed at the progress making and of cherubim.' by the new doctrine at Medina, resolved to destroy its This victory, the first of Mohammed's battles, was author and chief support. This conspiracy was scarce gained, in the second year of the Hejira, over the idolaformed, when, by some means or other, it came to Mo-trous Meccans, headed by Abu Sofian, in the valley of hammed's knowledge, and he gave out that it was revealed to him by the Angel Gabriel, who had now ordered him to retire to Medina. Whereupon, to amuse his enemies, he directed Ali to lie down in his place, and wrap himself in his green cloak, which he did; and Mohammed escaped miraculously, as they pretend, to Abubeker's house, unperceived by the conspirators, who had already assembled at the prophet's door. They, in the meantime, looking through the crevice, and seeing Ali, whom they took to be Mohammed himself, asleep, continued watching there till morning, when Ali arose, and they found themselves deceived. In the recesses of a cave near Mecca, Mohammed and Abubeker eluded for three days the pursuit of their enemies. There are only two of us,' said the apprehensive disciple, when he expected the pursuers to penetrate their retreat. There is a third, even God himself,' said his intrepid chief; he will defend us.' According to tradition, Mohammed afterwards asserted that a miracle was here wrought in his behalf; for that his enemies, approaching the cave, found that its entrance was covered by spiders' webs hanging from the trees, which convinced them that no person had entered it for a long time. After a perilous journey, Mohammed entered Medina in triumph, being enthusiastically received by the Ansars, who disputed for the honour of entertaining the prophet, and took hold of the bridle of his camel. Mohammed then desired them to let her take her own way, for she was a stubborn beast; which she took accordingly, and stopped at the stable of two rich orphans, Sahali and Sohaili, where the prophet dismounted. This spot he purchased from the orphans, after refusing their offer to bestow it upon him, and Abubeker paid the money. He erected thereon a mosque, and a habitation for himself, at which he is said to have laboured with his own hands. Medina henceforth received the august title of Medinat al Nabi, or the City of the Prophet.' The Mohammedan era, called the Hejira, takes its commencement from the date of Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina. The generality of writers place this epoch on Friday the 16th of July, A.D. 622. It is this event which has rendered Friday the solemn day of the week for his followers; this choice also agreeing with the customs of the Arabians, who held their assemblies usually on the Fridays. The word Hejira is derived from the Arabic verb Hajara, to abandon one's native country, to emigrate on account of persecution; which comes from the Hebrew Hagar, the stranger or emigrant, the name of Ishmael's mother. It was from this period that Mohammed, having fully Beder, which is situated near the sea, between Mecca and Medina. Mohammed's forces consisted of no more than 319 men, and the enemy's army of near 1000; notwithstanding which odds, he put them to flight, having killed seventy of the principal Koreish, and taken as many prisoners, with the loss of only fourteen of his own men. This first victory, although it may seem no very considerable action, was yet of great advantage to him, and the foundation of all his future power and success; for which reason it is very famous in Mohammedan history, and is frequently vaunted of in the Koran as an effect of the Divine assistance, through the miraculous interposition of the Angel Gabriel. The gaining of the battle was, however, wholly attributable to the extraordinary stratagem of Mohammed, by his expedient, at the critical moment, of scattering a handful of dust against his enemies, at the same time exclaiming, Let their faces be confounded!'-which action so invigorated his fainting followers, that they charged and overthrew their foes. Mohammed captured the whole caravan, which consisted of 1000 camels, richly laden, from Syria; and this afforded him the means of rewarding his followers, and inciting them to further exertion by the allurements of wealth and the hope of plunder. Some reckon as many as twenty-seven expeditions wherein Mohammed was personally present, in nine of which he gave battle; besides several other expeditions, undertaken by his orders, in which he was not present. His forces he maintained partly by the contributions of his followers for this purpose, which he called by the name of zacat, or alms, and the paying of which he very artfully made one main article of his religious system; and partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder to be brought into the public treasury for that purpose, in which matter he likewise pretended to be guided by the Divine direction. In a few years, by the success of his arms, he considerably raised his prophetic character and power. In the sixth year of the Hejira, he set out with 1400 men to visit the temple of Mecca, not with any intention of committing hostilities, but in a peaceable manner. However, when he came to Al Hodeibiya, which is situated partly within and partly without the sacred territory, the Koreish sent to let him know that they would not permit him to enter Mecca unless he forced his way; whereupon he called his troops about him, and they all took a solemn oath of fealty or homage to him, and he resolved to attack the city; but those of Mecca, sending Arwa Ebn Masud, prince of the tribe of Thakif, as their ambassador, to desire peace, a truce was concluded between them for ten years, by which any person was allowed to enter into league either with Mohammed or with the Koreish, as he thought fit. Having subdued the chief part of the pagan tribes, and by his relentless severity exterminated the Jewish classes who dwelt peaceably in Arabia, in the seventh year of the Hejira (A.D. 628), he assumed the state of a sovereign, and sent embassies to the neighbouring monarchs, exhorting them to embrace Islamism. In the eighth year of the Hejira, a quarrel, real or feigned, gave him the opportunity of possessing himself of Mecca, and of the sacred square edifice called the Caaba. Mohammed appearing suddenly at their gates with 10,000 men, before the troops of Mecca had even been apprised of his departure from Medina, they had no choice left but an immediate surrender or destruction. Thus pressed, and menaced with instant death, the Koreish submitted to the superior power of Mohammed. Their final submission to him, and their acceptance of his faith, were ratified subsequently on the hill El Safa. Having visited the holy building of the Caaba, and broken in pieces the idols wherewith it was encircled, Mohammed went in procession seven times round the building, and touched respectfully the black stone which was held sacred by the Arabs; then entering the edifice, he repeated the formulary, God is great. Afterwards he went to the well Zemzem-which is believed by them to be the same that the angel showed to Hagar-drank of the water, and performed the required ablution. Artfully blending attention to exterior observances with zeal, and pursuing a mixed system of mercy and rigour, he subdued the hearts of his high-minded countrymen, and soon superadded to his claims of power the more imposing and indissoluble bonds of superstitious reverence and awe. The capture of Mecca, and the submission of the powerful race of the Koreish, was soon followed by the conversion to Islamism of most of the remoter pagan tribes, until all Arabia bowed the neck beneath his yoke. Mohammed, having thus become master of all Arabia, made great preparations for the conquest of Syria; but this vast enterprise was reserved for his successors. He gradually, however, paved the way for their successes, and brought the celebrated region of Arabia into one complete and powerful union. He established the law which still obtains in all the Mussulman states, of imposing a personal tax on such subjects as do not embrace Islamism. By this custom, still subsisting among all the sovereigns who acknowledge the Koran, every reputed infidel pays a kharaj, or capitation-tax, over and above the imposts which he supports equally with the rest of the subjects. He absolutely prohibited all idolators from making the pilgrimage to Mecca, or any foreigner from entering the Caaba, under pain of death. These were strokes of profound policy. He retained the pilgrimage to Mecca, which had been of ancient standing among the descendants of Abraham and Ishmael. Though he destroyed the images used at Mecca, as objects of idolatrous worship, he carefully retained the holy relics of the black stone and the supposed impression of Abraham's foot. The black stone had been immemorially venerated there; the angels, it was said, had brought it white to the Caaba, and the sins of mankind had transformed it to black. Hence, in allusion to this stone, the Orientals use the familiar compliments, May God whiten thy face! May the shah make thy face white!' &c. These practices no less forwarded the progress of Islamism than did the sword of Mohammed. Everywhere the petty Arabian tribes overthrew their idols, and submitted themselves to the new faith. Thus was Mohammedanism established, and idolatry rooted out, even in Mohammed's lifetime, throughout all Arabia; and the Arabs, being then united in one faith, and under one prince, found themselves in a condition for making those conquests which extended the Mohammedan faith over so great a part of the world. In the tenth year of the Hejira (A.D. 631), Mohammed set forth on a solemn and pompous embassy to Mecca, accompanied by all his wives, and by at least 90,000 | pilgrims. He sacrificed with his own hands sixty-three victims, and liberated sixty-three slaves, in thanksgiving for each year of his life; he shaved his head, and scattered the hair amongst the multitude, who eagerly seized portions of it, which they treasured as sacred relics. He closed the solemnity with the following apostrophe, which, as if pronounced from heaven, concludes the Koran:- Henceforth, wretched and miserable shall they be who deny your religion. Fear not them, but fear me; this day I have perfected your religion, and completed my grace toward you. I have willed that Islamism be your religion.' He established the lunar movable year, still in use with the Mohammedans; and finally, as supreme Pontiff, or Imam, dismissed the people with a farewell, the last, as he declared, that he should give them; whence this pilgrimage derived its name of the Farewell. Mohammed, having returned to Medina, now drew near the close of his extraordinary and fortunate career. His health had been for three years on the decline; but he had neither relaxed his duties nor his labours. Being at length affected with a mortal malady, he was conveyed to the house of his favourite wife, Ayesha, where he expired, in the eleventh year of the Hejira (A.D. 632), in the sixty-first year of his age. Of all his wives, the first alone bore him any children, of whom only his daughter Fatima, wife of Ali, survived him. Having thus presented a sketch of the life of this remarkable man, we proceed to a notice of the religion which he founded. As already mentioned, Mohammed must be viewed chiefly in the light of an improver on the old modes of belief and practice of the Arabians; and his merit (if we may so call it) in this respect appears to have been, the combining of a variety of religious opinions into one form of faith, superadding an implicit belief in his own prophetical character, and enunciating the whole of his code in the writings of the Koran. At the period of his death, he bore the character both of a divinely-appointed vicegerent and of a secular prince, the latter being gained by his conquests; and his successors claimed the same double qualification. After the prophet's decease, the election of a successor occasioned considerable excitement, his father-in-law Abubeker, and his son-in-law and cousin Ali, each claiming the office of caliph. Abubeker was finally successful in the competition, and he, as is known to the readers of history, was succeeded by the ferocious Omar. Ali became the fourth caliph, but he was summarily cut off by poison; and from the long contests which afterwards occurred, it is difficult to say in what line the caliphate was ultimately settled. The Koran, or prescribed record of the Mohammedan faith, consists of 114 chapters, each with a distinct title, but varying in length from a few sentences to several pages. No continuous subject can be said to run through the work, each chapter being in the form either of a separate revelation, or treating of a peculiar matter in faith, morals, or law. Among the titles to the various chapters we find the following:The Cow; the Family of Imran; Women; the Spoils; Jonas; Joseph; Abraham; The Night Journey; The Cave; The Assembly; The News; Divorce; The Fig; The Resurrection, &c. The whole is a singular jumble of highly poetical passages, narratives characterised by great simplicity and beauty of style, garbled extracts from the Old Testament, and pious exclamations. The praise of the Almighty is a prevailing theme in all parts of the work, along with a deep inculcation of the principle that Mohammed is the greatest of all prophets who ever appeared on earth. The work certainly contains much that is excellent as respects moral admonition, but also a great deal that is incomprehensible and ludicrous. Mohammed did not live to complete his Koran in the shape we now see it. With the assistance, unquestionably, of a person versant in the Jewish Scriptures, he from time to time, as was suggested by passing circumstances, composed his fragments, which he declared to have been revealed to him from God by the Angel Gabriel; and these having been collected by his Whatever we may advance against the authority of the Koran, it is certain that it has been received by Mohammedans with a degree of reverence rarely witnessed among Christians towards the Holy Scriptures. In it they view the whole code of religious belief, civil law, and moral obligation. The belief which they generally profess, as drawn from the Koran, consists in the following leading points:-Religion is divided into two branches-faith and practice. Faith includes belief in God, in his angels, his revelations in the Koran, his prophets, the resurrection and day of judgment, and God's absolute decrees. Practice includes prayer, comprehending under this head the purifications necessary before prayer, alms-giving, fastings, and the pilgrimage to Mecca. The religion, as a whole, is called the religion of Islam, or Islamism. The word islam-we quote the Encyclopædia Americana-signifies an entire submission to the will of God, and thence the attaining of security, peace, and salvation. This act is performed, and these blessings are obtained, according to the doctrines of the Koran, by acknowledging the unity of God and the apostleship of Mohammed. Every man who makes this profession (aslama) is a Moslem-that is, one who has entirely given himself up to the will of God-and is on that account in a state of salvation (salam). As it happens that Muslimani, the dual of Muslim, is commonly substituted for the singular by the Persians and Turks, the words Mussulman or Mussulmans, has in those, as well as in European languages, now nearly superseded the shorter and more correct term.' followers, were, by succeeding caliphs, formed into a J and others, a book called the Psalms, which consists of and a history of Christ, said to be written by St Barvolume entitled, by way of pre-eminence, Al Koran extracts from our version mixed up with other matter, In this book, Christ is made to predict the (pronounced Kooraan), or The Book. nabas. coming of Mohammed under the title of Famous,' that being the signification of his name in Arabic. According to tradition, there have been from time to time no fewer than 224,000 prophets sent into the world; and of these, 313 were apostles, charged with commissions to reclaim mankind from the infidelity into which they had fallen. Six of them-namely, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed-were sent especially to promulgate new laws or dispensations. The Mohammedans believe some of these apostles to have been superior to the others; to the last six, for instance, they give the first place. They believe them to have been free from great sins, although not perfectly pure, and that they all professed the same religion. In this list of prophets they introduce many whose names are mentioned in Scripture as patriarchs, such as Adam, Seth, Lot, &c. and also many others who are not mentioned in the sacred writings. But of all the prophets of God, the Koran enforces the leading aoctrine that Mohammed is the greatest, and that his mission is to be believed in, under the most severe penalties. God will render of non effect the works of those who believe not, and who turn away men from the way of God; but as to those who believe and work righteousness, and believe in the revelation which hath been sent down unto Mohammed (for it is the truth from their Lord), he will expiate their evil deeds from them, and will dislievers, strike off their heads, until ye have made a pose their heart aright. When ye encounter the unbeThe notions of God and his attributes appear from great slaughter among them; and bind them in bonds: the Koran to be just, and favourable to devotion. The and either give them a free dismission afterwards, or belief in angels is, however, mingled with many singu- exact a ransom, until the warriors shall have laid down rous passages of this kind, the Mohammedans have lar fancies. They are believed to have been created their arms. This shall ye do.'-Chap. xlvii. From numeby fire, to have pure and subtile bodies requiring no support, and that there is no distinction of sexes among framed the well-known brief enunciation of their belief them. The angels are supposed to have various forms-There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his and offices assigned to them; some adoring God, sing- prophet,' a saying which is ever in their mouths, and Regarding the resurrection, the Mohammedans being praises to him, or interceding for mankind, while may be called their popular creed. others are engaged in writing down the actions of men, carrying the throne of God, and performing other ser-lieve that, when a dead person is laid in the grave, he vices. The Mohammedans also believe that there are is received by an angel, who gives him notice of the two guardian angels appointed to attend upon every coming of the two Examiners. These are two black Nakir. They order the dead person to sit upright, and human being, who observe and write down his actions, angels, of a terrible appearance, named Mouker and and who are changed every day. examine him concerning his faith in the unity of God and the mission of Mohammed. If he answer correctly, his body is allowed to lie at rest, and is refreshed with the air of paradise; but if he appear sceptical, they beat him on the temples with iron rods, till he cries with anguish so loud as to be heard by all except men and genii. As to where the soul dwells after death, the Mohammedans seem to have a variety of opinions, which need not be particularised. Mohammedans are also divided as to the nature of the resurrection, some believing that it will be merely spiritual, others that the body only will be raised; but it is believed that all who have ever lived will appear for judgment. It is likewise believed that the irrational animals will be judged at the resurrection, and weak animals will take vengeance on the strong until satisfaction is given to the injured. The Koran enjoins kindness to all animals whatsoever, although it pronounces some to be unclean; and it is allowed that the conduct of Mohammedans in It is supposed by the more orthodox Mohammedans, this respect far excels that of the generality of Christians. that the books wherein the bad actions of a man are registered will be put into one scale, and the good into another, and according as these preponderate, sentence will be given. After this will follow the satisfaction which every one takes of his fellow, or the retaliation made by them for the injuries they have received. The 'Which being done,' manner of giving this satisfaction will be to take away from one man a portion of his good works, and give it to one whom he has injured. says Mr Sale, 'if the angels say, Lord, we have given There are four angels whom the Mohammedans believe to be more in the favour of God than any of the others. These are Gabriel, who is sometimes called the Holy Spirit and the Angel of Revelations, from his being employed in writing down the decrees of God; Michael, the friend and protector of the Jews; Azrael, the angel of death; and Israsil, who is to sound the trumpet at the resurrection. The devil, called in the Koran Eblis, is supposed to have been one of those favoured angels; but he fell, because he refused to worship Adam, with the other angels, at his creation. In the eighteenth chapter of the Koran, however, he is said to have been one of the genii, a species of beings whom the Mohammedans believe to be intermediate between angels and devils. The genii are said to have been created, like the angels, of fire, free from smoke; but, unlike the angels, they eat and drink, propagate their species, and are subject to death. Some are supposed to be good, and others bad. In the seventy-second chapter of the Koran, a company of the genii are described as believing in the doctrine of Mohammed, on hearing him read it. With respect to the belief in prophets, the Koran inculcates the doctrine that God has at various times given revelations of his will to several prophets, whose books originally amounted to one hundred and four. Of these, ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty to Enoch, ten to Abraham, and the other four to Moses, David, Jesus, and Mohammed. All these, except the four last, they believe to be lost; and that, after Mohammed, no other revelation may be expected. It appears that they have some prayers of Moses, Jonas, 413 to every one his due, and there remaineth of this person's good works so much as equalleth the weight of an ant, God will of his mercy cause it to be doubled to him, that he may be admitted into paradise. If, on the contrary, his good works be exhausted, and there still be some to receive satisfaction from him, God will order an equal amount of their sins to be heaped upon him, that he may be punished in their stead. The trials being over, and the assembly dissolved, the Mohammedaus hold that those who are to be admitted into paradise will take the right-hand way, and those who are destined for hell-fire the left; but both of them must first pass the bridge called in Arabic al Sirat, which they say is laid over the midst of hell, and describe to be finer than a hair, and sharper than the edge of a sword.' The Mohammedans believe hell to be divided into seven apartments, designed for the reception of different degrees of sinners. The first is destined to receive the wicked Mohammedans, the second for the Jews, the third for the Christians, and the rest for other sects and unbelievers. Over these will be placed nineteen angels, to whom the condemned will confess the justness of God's sentence, and beg them to intercede with him in their behalf, The punishment of infidels will be continued for ever, but wicked Mohammedans will be released after a certain period of suffering. Before entering paradise, the righteous will drink at the pond of Mohammed, which is supplied with water from the rivers of paradise. It is described as a month's journey in compass, and whoever drinks of the water will thirst no more. It is a matter of keen dispute whether paradise is already created, many supposing that it will be different from the paradise in which Adam was placed. The more orthodox opinion, however, is, that it is the same, and that it was created before the world. It is supposed to be situated above the seven heavens, immediately under the throne of God, and is described as a place of surpassing beauty. The trunks of the trees are of gold, one of which, the tree of happiness, will yield all sorts of fruit for the consumption of true believers. God's absolute decree and predestination of both good and evil, is a doctrine which Mohammed always took occasion to impress upon his followers. He said that God had not only predetermined the adverse or prosperous fortune of every person in the world, but also his faith or infidelity, which fate it is impossible by any foresight to avoid. By this doctrine, Mohammed taught his followers to have the greatest contempt for danger and suffering, which feeling was of material service to him in the propagation of his creed. Of the four points of religious practice required by the Koran, prayer is the first. Mohammed included under this act purifications of the body, by total immersion at certain periods, and by washing the face, hands, and feet, at others. To make his followers punctual in the observance of these purifications, Mohammed declared that the practice of religion is founded on cleanliness, without which prayer would not be heard by God. A Mohammedan is obliged to pray five times in the twenty-four hours, at stated periodsbefore sunrise in the morning, when noon is past, in the afternoon before sunset, in the evening after sunset, and before the first watch of the night. Public notice is given of these periods by the muezzins, or criers, and every Mohammedan prepares himself for prayer. This he performs either in the mosque, or any other place, providing it be clean, after a prescribed form, and with a certain number of ejaculations, which he is on no occasion to abridge, unless when on a journey or preparing for battle. It is also necessary that he should kneel in a humble posture, and turn his face towards Mecca, as expressed in the second chapter of the Koran: Turn, therefore, thy face towards the holy temple of Mecca, and wherever ye be, turn your faces towards that place.' The direction of Mecca is pointed out within the mosque by a niche on the outside, by the situation of the doors and the steeple; and tables have been calculated for finding this out when they have no other guide. A Mohammedan is also obliged to lay off all costly parts of his dress before prayers, that he may not appear proud. Females are not allowed to enter the mosques along with the men, but they may visit them at other periods. The prayers of the Mohammedans consist chiefly of pious exclamations, praising the greatness and goodness of God; and one of the more common of these prayers consists in a repetition of the first chapter of the Koran, called the Fathat, or Belief. It is in these words: Praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures; the most merciful, the King of the Day of Judgment. Thee do we worship, and of Thee do we beg assistance. Direct us in the right way, in the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious; not of those against whom Thou art incensed, nor of those who go astray.' Alms-giving is a necessary part of the religious practice of Mohammedans. These consist of cattle, money, corn, fruits, and wares which can be sold. At the end of the fast of the Ramadan, every Mohammedan is obliged to give in alms, for himself and for every one of his family, a measure of wheat, barley, dates, raisins, rice, or other provisions. The legal alms,' says Mr Sale, were at first collected by Mohammed himself, who employed them as he thought fit in the relief of his poor relations and followers, but chiefly applied them to the maintenance of those who served in his wars, and fought, as he termed it, in the way of God. His successors continued to do the same, till, in process of time, other taxes and tributes being imposed for the support of the government, they seem to have been weary of acting as almoners to their subjects, and to have left the payment of them to their consciences.' Fasting is the third point of religious practice amongst the Mohammedans. It consists in abstaining from satisfying the appetites; in restraining the ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and other members, from sin, and the fasting of the heart from worldly cares, and thinking of nothing but God. During the month of the Ramadan, Mohammedans are obliged to fast from the time the new moon first appears till the appearance of the next new moon. In this month they abstain from eating and drinking from daybreak till sunset; and this injunction they observe so strictly, that while they fast, they suffer nothing to enter their mouths or the other parts of the body, esteeming the fast broken if they smell perfumes, bathe, or even purposely swallow their spittle. The old and the sick are exempted from this fast; but in the case of the latter, when they recover, they must fast the allotted number of days. After sunset the people are allowed to refresh themselves-to eat, drink, and enjoy the company of their wives till daybreak. The more scrupulously devout, however, commence the fast again at midnight. According to the injunctions of the Koran, every man is to perform a pilgrimage to Mecca once in his life, except prevented by poverty or ill health. It is clear that such an observance is altogether inapplicable to the condition and situation of the great bulk of the human race; and what is impossible in human practice, can never have been enjoined by the Creator. Mohammed, it is evident, only thought of Arabia and its neighbourhood, when he planned this idle ceremonial observance. Aware that, even within that limited district, his followers would have a difficulty in performing such a pilgrimage, he allows any one who is wealthy enough, to hire and send a deputy; many, we are informed, neglect this duty who cannot plead a lawful excuse. The temple of Mecca stands in the midst of the city, and is called the sacred or inviolable temple. Within it are said to be the tomb of Ishmael, and a remarkable black stone, which bears the mark of Abraham's foot. This temple was held in great veneration by the Arabians long before the time of Mohammed; some even say that it was built by Adam immediately after his expulsion from paradise. To this place pilgrimages are made from all parts where the Mohammedan religion is professed. A number having collected from any par ticular district, form themselves into a caravan for the | by it. The Almighty was its author, and he is all-wise; purpose of mutual protection, which is very necessary from the number of bandit tribes who infest the route. The pilgrims meet at different places around Mecca, according to the direction in which they have come, and are obliged to be there by the beginning of the first month, called Dhulhajji. 'It is not,' says Mr Lane, by the visit to Mecca, and the performance of the ceremonies of circuiting the temple seven times, and kissing the black stone in each round, and other rites in the holy city, that the Moslem acquires the title of the hadji (pilgrim). The final object of the pilgrimage is Mount Arafat, six hours' journey from Mecca. During his performance of the required ceremonies at Mecca, and also during his sojourn at Arafat, and until his completion of the pilgrimage, the Moslem wears a peculiar dress called ehhram, generally consisting of two simple pieces of cotton, or linen, or woollen cloth, without seam or ornament, one of which is wrapped round the loins, and the other over the shoulders; the instep and heel of each foot, and the head, must be bare; but umbrellas are now used by many of the pilgrims. It is necessary that the pilgrim should be present on the occasion of a Khootbeh, which is recited on Mount Arafat in the afternoon of the 9th of the month Dhulhajji. In the ensuing evening, after sunset, the pilgrims commence their return to Mecca. Halting the following day in the valley of Mina, or Moona, they complete the ceremonies of the pilgrimage by a sacrifice (of one or more male sheep, he-goats, cows, or she-camels, part of the flesh of which they eat, and part give to the poor), and by shaving the head and clipping the nails. Every one after this resumes his dress, or puts on a new one, if provided with such. The sacrifice is called el fida (or the ransom), as it is performed in commemoration of the ransom of Ishmael by the sacrifice of the ram, when he was himself about to have been offered up by his father; for it is the general opinion of Mohammedans, that it was this son, and not Isaac, who was to have been sacrificed by Abrahaın. The laws by which Mohammedans are governed are in a great measure derived from the Koran. Where this sacred book is silent, reference is made to the traditions of the prophet to direct the decisions of the judge. Regarding the Koran as a book of jurisprudence, we quote the following from the Library of Useful Knowledge: Nothing but the prejudices of education could make a reasonable man look upon the Koran as a book of jurisprudence capable of conveying instruction to any but a nation of savages. Deficient in form, deficient in clearness, incomplete, it possesses not one single quality requisite to a body of law. In the midst of a vast farrago of nonsense, hidden amidst unmeaning explanations and dark mysterious prophecies, there sometimes appears a command respecting the distribution of property or the punishment of offenders. But no explanations are given—no regular description of the means by which property may be acquired; no enumeration of those by which the rights to it may be lost, is even attempted. The rights of individuals, in their several capacities, to the services of others, are nowhere distinctly mentioned; nor is there the most distant approximation to any systematic view of the several obligations to which it was intended to subject the members of the community. As occasion prompted, or when a dispute happened, Mohammed was accustomed to issue a revelation, which answered for the immediate purpose. But the original unwritten customs of the Arabs remained in full force, receiving little modification from the decrees of the prophet. One advantage, and one alone, he may be supposed to have originated-his were written decrees; it was a commencement for a body of laws, though a rude and imperfect one. This benefit, however, is more than counterbalanced by the evil of their being irrevocable. What the ignorant barbarian instituted, succeeding generations have been obliged to retain. No matter how absurd, how injurious the decree, religion commands the faithful Moslem to abide and moreover is as wise at one time as another. How, then, shall we pretend to amend the divine ordination, or fancy that he himself need amend it? The conclusion is irresistible, provided the premises be allowed. The nations who have assumed the Moslem faith have consequently remained, and while they continue to profess it must remain, barbarians.' One of the worst features of the Mohammedan faith is the degraded position which it assigns to women. This indeed forms a radical error in the constitution of society in Mohammedan countries, and must be removed before there can be a steady advance in rational improvement. Women are considered in every respect inferior to men. Few of them, even among the highest classes, receive any instruction; they are carefully secluded from public observation; assigned in marriage without their own consent, on payment of a trifling sum in form of dowry; and are divorced at pleasure-all which tends to debase their minds, and to produce the worst kind of social vices. Polygamy and legal concubinage add to the evils caused by such practices. The Koran allows a man to marry four wives, and to maintain as many concubine slaves as he may choose. He may divorce any of his wives at any instant which caprice or passion may suggest, merely by uttering the emphatic words, Thou art divorced!' and she must return to her parents or friends accordingly. He may take her again as a wife, and again divorce her; and even divorce her a third time, provided she has in the interval been married to and divorced from another man. Mr Lane, in his work on Egypt, says, that he has known cases in which men have, in the course of a few years, married as many as twenty or thirty wives; and also cases of women who had been married to a dozen or more men successively. In most instances, we are told, a man marries no more than one wife; but as these practices are common, we can easily judge of the depravity of manners which prevails in those countries professing the Mohammedan creed. From the manner in which females are treated, it has been generally supposed by Christians that the Mohammedans believe that women have no souls. But this is a mistake. Women are believed to have souls, and are not to be excluded from paradise, though they are there to perform offices of a subservient nature. The meanest person in paradise, it is believed, is to have eighty thousand servants, and seventy-two wives of the girls of paradise, besides the wives he had in this world; that he is to inhabit a tent composed of pearls, iacinths, and emeralds; at meals he will be served in dishes of gold; and he is to be at liberty to drink freely of the wine of paradise, which will not intoxicate.' In such promises of felicity, we have a striking proof of the mean ideas of eternal happiness formed by the prophet, as well as of his knowledge of mankind. The Koran forbids the use of wine or any intoxicating liquors; and this is among the best injunctions which it contains. Opium and other inebriating drugs are understood to fall within the line of prohibition, though not mentioned. The use, therefore, of either intoxicating drinks or drugs, is considered immoral in all Mohammedan countries. Mussulmans of all ranks are remarkable for their sobriety and temperance in food. The eating of swine's flesh is strictly prohibited; and indeed most animals forbidden to be eaten by the Mosaic law, are alike forbidden by that of Mohammed. All animals used for food must be killed by cutting their throat; and, in performing the operation, the butcher must say, 'In the name of God! God is most great!' Gambling is also prohibited; also usury, and the making of any images or pictorial resemblances of anything that has life. Perhaps the desire to extinguish idolatry influenced the prophet in laying down the last-mentioned law. Apostacy from Islamism is deemed a most heinous sin, and must be punished with death. The Mohammedan creed enjoins no sabbath, like that of either the Jews or Christians, but selects Friday as a day in the week to be distinguished by more than |