be embodied in a distinct outward expression. We find it to be a common remark, that the strong outbursts of emotion are infectious: people can rarely stand unmoved before the influence of laughter or tears. Enthusiasm of any kind, which means an intense exhibition of some particular emotion, is always catching. The strong expression of reverence or admiration is apt to find its echo in all bystanders. The gait and manner of one man may be communicated to the persons about him if they are of the susceptible character. The unoccupied minds and undecided activities of the young are shaped by spontaneous and unconscious imitation to a still greater extent than by express rules or formal guidance. More widely still, imitation impresses a common cast upon the language and manners of families, tribes, and nations, and perpetuates the same forms from generation to generation.

into operation, the execution will mainly depend upon our will, or on the force that usually goes along with the decisions of the intellect. No doubt the scheme being adapted to the collective impulses of our nature ought to be supported by these, but as it cannot agree with every impulse at every time, and as in some aspects it may be wholly repugnant to us, it would come to a stand if there were not a force independent of sense, appetite, instinct, emotions, desires, habits, and imitation, to carry us over the intervals when these are dormant or are opposed to our plans. Were it not for the power imbedded in the centre of intelligence, forethought would be quenched every day of our life by some strong impulse of our inferior nature. The desire of ease at one time and of excitement at another, the gratification of appetite, and the predominance of strong emotion, would be more than sufficient to counterbalance duty or prudence, if there were not a peculiar and distinct tendency or power to carry into effect the results of reason or the judgments

The imitation may be of very obvious and conspicuous bodily actions, or it may reach to the subtlest peculiarities of mind. In the one case it is a mere instinct, in the other it is an instinct extended by in-grounded on our intelligence. tellectual associations. The literal copying of an outward act needs no intellect, as we may see in the case of repeating a sound or a gesture; but when we imitate the modes of thinking of other men, or embody in our own language the thoughts that reach us in the language of others, there is an express effort of the powers of intellect requisite; more especially the powers of similarity and constructive association. The instinctive imitation or literal copying is within the capacity of many animals; and some races of men, such as the Sclavonic populations, possess the power in high perfection; but the imitation of an idea, so as to put it into different forms and language, is an act that shows a considerable force of intellect. Sir Christopher Wren's imitation of St Peter's is very different from the practice of literally copying Greek temples in every imaginable kind of building.

It has been common to designate certain of the fine arts, such as sculpture, painting, and poetry, Imitative Arts, and to ascribe their origin to the innate tendency of man to imitation, thereby recognising the production of likenesses or similitudes as one of the active principles of human nature.

THE WILL.

This is reckoned the highest and noblest of all the active impulses of man. Its operations are based on intelligence, and they are intended to enforce the conclusions of the reason against the instinctive and passionate impulses. By the intellect we make large generalisations of what is good for the future as well as for the present, and of what is good for society at large as well as for the individual; and in obeying the rules dictated by these intellectual considerations we are often unsupported by any instinct, habit, or imitative impulse; and were there not a large reserve of power in human nature we might rarely be induced to act in such cases at all. But in the very seat of intelligence itself there is a central force that gives impetus to its suggestions, exactly as the ganglia of sense and instinct send forth the requisite stimulus to the active organs of these circles. The power of the appetites and passions diminishes according as the object is distant and faintly perceived; the inere prospective knowledge that we will be hungry a year hence would not produce the same vigorous action as a present hunger, and would not produce action at all but for there being an additional centre of power attached to the region of intellectual associations. Obedience to remote and general views, and to what can only be conceived by the intellect, proceeds from this centre, to which we commonly give the name of Will. When we conceive to ourselves some extensive scheme that shall involve our whole life, and that we are urged to, not by some single appetite or instinct, but by an intellectual appreciation of our whole character and being and the circumstances that surround us, and conclude upon a line of action for carrying the scheme

The character of Will in an individual will depend very much on the character of the intellect, or on the kind of considerations that it can most readily entertain. It is impossible that action can be more elevated than intelligence, or that a man can carry into effect more than he sees. The strength of Will does not increase with the strength of the intellect, but the one will always act along with the other. Energy following up reason and the generalities of prudence, right, and social good, and tested by overcoming occasionally all the inferior propensities of one's being, is the true definition of will; and the more elevated the character of the intellectual grasp, the more does the will stand apart from the other forces and activities of the being. When a man forms very refined and lofty ideas of prudence, self-culture, or social and moral duty, such as will require the restraint or suppression of many powerful impulses and instincts, and when his resolution is powerful enough to carry these into full effect, he must be reckoned a man of singularly powerful will as well as of elevated susceptibilities and intelligence. There is in some men a general temperament of activity or a strong tendency to action in every way that may be open to them, extending over all the specific inpulses of the frame. In such men the force of pure will does not stand out so clearly as in the class whose temperament is naturally passive and susceptible, but who, on the spur of intellectual determinations, exert an unremitted energy of executive force.

The actions where a strong will is most required are such as, while they are at variance with many powerful propensities, are also opposed to common usage, or use and wont in the world at large, and of a kind that the individual is unaccustomed to. With opposing instincts, opposing habits, and, at the same time, an opposing social exterior of public opinion, any kind of proceeding must be intensely difficult, and must require a high development of pure will.

Excitement is apt to come into comparison with Will, and to be confounded with it. There is such a thing as a temporary increase of the whole activity or energy of the system, which enables a man for the time to excel himself, a reaction of languor and weakness being apt to succeed to it. But the proof of a strong will as against mere excitement is an unremitted and continued course of action, which may call for strong effort at any moment, and which is incompatible with intervals of weakness and irresolution.

Having now given a slight sketch of the chief elementary powers and peculiarities of the human mind, we ought next to go on to the consideration of the complex faculties and susceptibilities, such as OBSERVATION, MEMORY, ABSTRACTION, REASON, JUDGMENT, IMAGINATION, CONSCIENCE, GENIUS, &c.: but the discussion of these is not possible within our narrow limits, and we must therefore refer the reader to such works as those of Locke, Bacon, Reid, Stewart, and Brown,

PHRENOLOGY.

operate only by means of some kind of corporeal organisation. To all sane manifestations of mind, he maintains that brain in a healthy condition is necessary. In sleep, fainting, and compression of the brain, mind is suspended. Were it an immaterial spirit, acting independently of the brain, the repose of the material brain could not suspend the spirit's working. Pressure on the brain instantly suspends consciousness. Mr Combe, in his 'System of Phrenology' (4th edition, p. 14), describes several most interesting and instructive experiments on compression, as made by Richerand, Cooper, Chapman, Cline, and others. Pinel clearly traces to a bodily cause the diseased manifestation of mind called insanity, by the following case:- A man engaged in a mechanical employment, and afterwards confined in the Bicêtre, experiences at irregular intervals fits of madness characterised by the following symptoms:-At first there is a sensation of heat in the abdominal viscera, with intense thirst and a strong constipation; the heat gradually extends to the breast, neck, and face, producing a flush of the complexion; on reaching the temples it is still greater, and is accompanied by very strong and frequent pulsations in the temporal arteries, which seem as if about to burst; finally, the nervous affection arrives at the brain.' What, then, follows? All the effects hitherto described are purely corporeal. Pinel proceeds-The patient is then seized with an irresistible propensity to shed blood; and if there be a sharp instrument within reach, he is apt to sacrifice to his fury the first person who presents himself.' How powerfully this case connects mind and brain, and what a strong light it sheds upon that really bodily, that is, cerebral disease called insanity! The brain, when exposed, has been seen in action during emotion, conversation, dreams, &c, Sir Astley Cooper refers to the case of a young man who had lost a portion of skull above the eyebrow. I distinctly saw the pulsation of the brain,' says Sir Astley; it was regular and slow; but at this time he was agitated by some opposition to his wishes, and directly the blood was sent with increased force to the brain, and the pulsations became frequent and violent.' Blumenbach observed a portion of exposed brain to sink during sleep, and swell when the patient awoke.

PHRENOLOGY is a Greek compound, signifying a dis- | logist disclaims materialism, but affirms that mind can course on the mind. The system which exclusively passes by this name was founded by Dr Francis Joseph Gall, a German physician, born in 1757. Dr Gall was led, when a schoolboy, to surmise a connection of particular mental faculties with particular parts of the brain, in consequence of observing a marked prominence in the eyes of a companion who always overmatched him in committing words to memory. Finding the same conformation in others noted for the same talent, he reflected that it was possible that other talents might be accompanied by external marks, and that dispositions might also be so indicated. He devoted himself to observing marked features of character; and on examining the heads, was struck with differences in their forms, there being prominences and hollows in some not found in others, with corresponding variations of character in the individuals. After most extensive and accurate observation, he first lectured on the subject in Vienna in 1796. There his lectures were suppressed by a jealous and ignorant despotism; upon which he abandoned Germany and settled in Paris, where he practised as a physician, and studied and extended his doctrine,' as he always called it, till his death in 1828. His great work, with its illustrative engravings, is one of the most extensive and beautiful examples of inductive evidence of which any science can boast. Dr Gall never took any particular step for making phrenology known in our island. With some slight exceptions, the science was not heard of in Britain till introduced by Dr Spurzheim in 1815. He was a native of Treves on the Moselle, born in 1776, the pupil, and, from 1804, the associate of Gall. Besides making many valuable discoveries in the anatomy and physiology of the brain, and ascertaining several organs in addition to those discovered by Gall, Dr Spurzheim had the distinction of systematising the discoveries of both into a harmonious and beautiful mental and moral philosophy. He died at Boston in the United States in 1832. Since then, the recognised head of the phrenological school has been Mr George Combe of Edinburgh, author of many popular works on the science, and its most successful teacher, by his public prelections in Britain and America. The applications of phrenology to insanity, health, and infant education, have been at the same time admirably made by the late Dr Andrew Combe. Whatever may be thought of phrenology as a system of mental philosophy, it is undeniable that its adherents have taken a lead in many social improvements, and shown the practical utility of their doctrines.

PRINCIPLES OF PHRENOLOGY.

The brain is the organ by and through which mind is manifested. Formerly, it was believed that mind and body were two distinct entities, and they were accordingly treated of separately by two orders of philosophers the metaphysicians and the anatomists. In vain to the metaphysician was it obvious that we have no knowledge of mind but through the medium of a bodily apparatus, with which it grows and decays; he continued to treat of mind as a spirit unconnected with body. The anatomical investigator reasoned quite as unphilosophically when he assumed that mind was nothing but matter, the higher qualities of which were to think and feel. The phrenologist says he avoids both these assumptions. He does not pretend to know, much less to assume, the essence or nature of either mind or matter. Whether they are one or distinct is known only to the God who made them; and whatever they are, they must therefore be the best possibly adapted to their end and design. The phreno

No. 72.

From the above facts phrenologists assume:-1st, As there is no vision or hearing without their respective organs, the eye and ear, so there is no thinking or feeling without their respective organs in the brain; 2d, Every mental affection must correspond with a certain state of the organ, and vice versâ; 3d, The perfection of the mind will have relation to the perfection of its organs. According to this doctrine, therefore, the study of the cerebral organs is the study of the mind, in the only condition in which we can cognize it.

The brain being the general organ of the mind, we come next to inquire whether it is all necessary to every act of feeling or thinking; or whether it is divided into parts, each part being the instrument or organ of a particular mental act. 1st, It is a law of organisation that different functions are never performed by the same organ. The stomach, liver, heart, eyes, ears, have each a separate duty. Different nerves are necessary to motion, feeling, and resistance, and there is no example of confusion amongst them. Analogy, therefore, is in favour of the conclusion that there are distinct organs for observing, reflecting, and feeling kindness, resentment, self-love, &c. 2d, The mental powers do not all come at once, as they would were the brain one indivisible organ. They appear successively, and the brain undergoes a corresponding change. 3d, Genius varies in different individuals; one has a turn, as it is

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called, for one thing, and another for something different. 4th, Dreaming is explained by the doctrine of distinct organs which can act or rest alone. Its disjointed images and feelings could never occur if the brain acted as a whole. Undivided, it must either all sleep or all wake; so that there could be no such thing as dreaming. 5th, Partial insanity, or madness on one point, with sanity on every other, proves the distinction of organs, and their separate action. 6th, Partial injuries of the brain, affecting the mental manifestations of the injured parts, but leaving the other faculties sound, prove distinctiveness of organs. 7th, There could be no such state of mind as the familiar one where our feelings contend, and antagonise and balance each other, if the brain were one organ.

most virtuous and talented of the reformers; while fig. 2 is the atrocious criminal Hare, who murdered by wholesale for gain. The superiority of fig. 1 in intellect is obvious by one glance at the high and full forehead,

OX

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

compared with the forehead villanous low,' as Shakspeare would have called it, of fig. 2. The horizontal line in fig. 2 shows the shallowness of moral brain. A line drawn from the same points in fig. 1 would show a much greater depth; while the mass of brain behind the ear in fig. 2, compared with fig. 1, shows the preponderance of animal brain in the former.

PRIMITIVE FACULTIES OF MIND, AS CONNECTED WITH
THEIR ORGANS IN THE BRAIN.

Mind, which was considered by the metaphysicians as a single thing or essence, was said by them to be capable of being in different states, in each of which states it made one of its various manifestations-as memory, judgment, anger, &c. In no particular does the phrenological hypothesis differ more from the metaphysical than in this. The phrenological doctrine is, that the brain, the organ of the mind, is divided into various faculties, each of which has its own modes of acting. It is accordingly held

These are grounds for presuming that the brain is not single, but a cluster of organs, or at least that it is capable of acting in parts, as well as in whole. For this conclusion the phrenologists have found satisfactory proofs in repeated observations, showing that particular manifestations of mind are proportioned, in intensity and frequency of recurrence, to the size or expansion of particular parts of the brain, and are thus to be presumed to depend on those parts. This is a law everywhere seen affecting organic nature; a large muscle, the conditions of health, quality, and outward circumstances being the same, has more power than a small one. The same is true of a nerve. Dogs have very large nerves for smelling, eagles for seeing, &c. A child's brain is smaller, and its mental power weaker, than those of an adult. A very small brain in an adult is the invariable cause of idiocy. A large head may be idiotic from cerebral disease, but a very small head, from defect of size alone, is always idiotic. Men of great force of character, such as Napoleon, Franklin, Burns, &c. had brains of unusually large size. Powerful energetic nations exceed weaker ones in size of head, and invariably, when brought into collision with them, overcome them. The average European head is to the average Hindoo as the head of a man to that of a boy; hence the conquest and subjection of a hundred millions of the latter by thirty thousand First, That by accurate observation of human actions, of the former. The general law, then, being that size it is possible to discriminate the dispositions and inof organ is accompanied by power of manifestation, we tellectual powers of man-such as love, anger, benevoproceed to inquire, secondly, if there are any circum-lence, observation, reflection, and so forth. stances, and what these are, which modify this law. It will be found that quality of brain is a modifying circumstance, also health of brain, and exercise of brain. Phrenologists conjectured that different brains differ in quality, but were long without any indications of these differences. The doctrine of the Temperaments has thrown considerable, though not perfect light on this point, and for this we are indebted to Dr Thomas of Paris. There are four recognised temperaments, accompanied with different degrees of power and activity-in other words, quality-of brain. These are the bilious, the nervous, the sanguine, and the lymphatic. The predominance of these several bodily systems is indicated by certain sufficiently obvious external signs, whence our power of recognising them, as fully described under ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY, Vol. I. p. 125.

The brain must be in a healthy condition to manifest itself properly in the mental faculties. The phrenologist must therefore inquire into this circumstance, as the external development does not reveal it.

Exercise or whether or not, and how, the brain has been exercised-is another condition to be inquired into before judging of two individuals similarly organised. The brain which has been the more and more judiciously exercised, will, other things being equal, manifest the greater degree of activity and power.

If size of organ implies vigour of function, it is of great moment in what region of the brain the organs are largest-whether in the animal, moral, or intellectual. On this preponderance depends the character. Two brains may be exactly alike in size generally, yet the characters may be perfect contrasts to each other. For example, there is nearly as much brain in fig. 2 as in fig. Î; yet fig. 1 is the head of Melancthon, the

Secondly, That the true form of the brain can be ascertained from the external form of the head; the brain, though the softer substance, being what determines the shape of the skull.

Thirdly, The organs or parts into which the brain is divided, all of which organs are possessed by every individual except in the case of idiocy, appear on the brain's surface in folds or convolutions, somewhat like the bowels or viscera of an animal, but have a wellascertained fibrous connection through the whole substance of the brain with one point at its base, called the medulla oblongata, which unites the brain to the spinal cord. The organs have thus each a conical form from the medulla oblongata to the surface.

Fourthly, The brain is divided into two equal parts called hemispheres; on each side of the fosse or division between these hemispheres the same organ occurs; all the organs are therefore double, in analogy with the eyes, ears, &c. But when the term organ is used, both organs are meant. The organs which are situated close to the middle line vertically drawn on the head, though close to each other, are nevertheless double; for example, Individuality, Benevolence, Firmness, &c.

Fifthly, Besides the brain proper, there is a smaller brain, lying below the hinder part of the base of the main brain, called the cerebellum.

Sixthly, The brain, including the cerebellum, is divided into the anterior, middle, and posterior lobes. The cerebellum forms part of the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe contains all the intellectual faculties; the posterior and lower range of the middle lobe are the regions of the animal propensities; while the moral sentiments are found to have their organs developed on the top or coronal region of the head.

The propensities here classified and described are it Inhabitiveness. Mr Combe does not disallow to it this common to man and the lower animals.