for a period of years. The Company in this case come in the room of the zemindar, and collect the rents in detail from the ryots by their agents. This system of zemindary settlement' prevails generally in Bengal, Bahar, Orissa, and Benares. It has also been tried on a small scale in the Madras presidency, but with indifferent success; but in a modified form it has long existed in some parts of Southern India, where hereditary chiefs, called polygars, occupy a similar situation to that of the zemindars in Bengal. There are other two modes of collecting the rent or land-tax (for it may receive either name); the Ryotwar, and the Mouzawar:— proclaims the lucky or unpropitious periods for sowing The ryotwar was first extensively introduced by the late excellent Sir Thomas Munro, when governor of Madras in 1802. In this system the government collects the rent directly from the ryots, without the intervention of zemindars. An actual survey was made, with great labour and expense, of the lands of the villages, in which it was attempted to fix the extent and value not merely of every occupancy, but of every field. The records showed the whole sum which the village had paid in former years; and from this, with the opinions of practised assessors, checked and guided by the advice of the village potail and curnum (the headsman and accountant), an estimate was formed of the gross produce, 45 per cent. of which was assumed as the rent. The sum thus ascertained was fixed as the maximum which the tenant should be called on to pay. The rent is taken from the ryots in monthly payments, and very summary means are used to extort it. The system was extremely unpopular at its introduction, and occasioned great distress; but this was attributed to the excessive amount of the tax, rather than to defects in its imposition. The reader should be told that the perquisites of the potail, curnum, Brahmin, astrologer, schoolmaster, and a long train of other vil- Of the three modes of settlement, it may be stated lage functionaries, are supposed to absorb 10 per cent. that the zemindary plan has yielded the largest reof the ryot's crop, so that the 45 per cent. which venue; the method of village settlement' does not government took in a good year was, and was meant cause much more trouble to the government, and is to be, one-half of the clear produce after this deduction better liked by the cultivators; the ryotwar is the most was made. In consequence of the outcry against the expensive and troublesome, and has been the least tax, considerable abatements were made; and the ryot-productive of revenue; but it would be the most equitwar system remains in operation in a considerable portion of Madras presidency at this time, with, we believe, comparatively few complaints. The third system is the Mouzawar, or village settlement.' A village in India does not mean a collection of houses at a particular spot, but corresponds to what is called a township in America. It is a tract of country,' says Mr Hamilton, comprising some thousands of acres of arable and waste land; politically viewed, it resembles a corporation or township. Its proper establishment of officers and servants consists of the following descriptions:-The potail, or head inhabitant, who has the general superintendence of the affairs of the village, settles the disputes of the inhabitants, attends to the police, and performs the important duty of collecting the revenues within his village a duty which his personal influence, and minute acquaintance with the situation and concerns of the people, render him best qualified to discharge: the curnum, who keeps the accounts of cultivation, and registers everything connected with it: the talliar (constable), or totie (watchman); the duty of the former appearing to consist in gaining information of crimes and offences, and in escorting and protecting persons travelling from one village to another; the province of the latter appearing to be more immediately confined to the village, consisting, among other duties, in guarding the crops, and assisting in measuring them: the boundary man, who preserves the limits of the village, or gives evidence concerning them in cases of dispute: the superintendent of the tanks and water-courses, who distributes the water therefrom for the purposes of agriculture: the Brahmin, who performs the village worship: the schoolmaster, who is seen teaching the children in the villages to read and write in the sand: the calendar Brahmin, or astrologer, who | able and most advantageous to the people at large, if the ends of justice were not defeated by the frauds of the native functionaries intrusted with its details, and whose corruption is almost universal. The revenue derivable from land by these various processes of exaction amounts, as has been said, to twothirds of the whole revenue of the Company, or the sum of £12,000,000. The next greatest head of revenue is the receipt from native princes, or from ceded and conquered countries, and which averages in amount from £6,000,000 to £7,000,000. The Company have hitherto gained £1,000,000 sterling per annum by the monopoly of opium. They have offered a price annually, which has been fixed at the lowest rate that will remunerate the producer; and ryots, whose lands have been suited to the cultivation, entered into engagements to deliver certain quantities. About two-thirds of the opium used to be smuggled into China, until the Chinese stopped the importation; and one-third was sent to the eastern isles, Java, Sumatra, &c. Salt has also been an article of valuable taxation. It has been manufactured on the coast of the Bay of Bengal exclusively for the Company. Before it reaches the consumer, its price is enhanced five, eight, or ten fold. The Company have realised a gross revenue of £2,000,000 per annum from this monopoly. The customs drawn by the Company consist partly of taxes collected at the seaports on foreign goods brought in, and partly of transit duties, levied on goods passing through the country. There are provincial duties, paid in passing from one presidency to another; town duties, on certain articles at the gates of towns; and market duties, levied at the market stations where fairs are held. To collect these taxes, and guard against contraband trade, there are customhouses, called chokies, at every considerable village. In the single district of Madura, with a million of souls, in the Madras presidency, there are twenty-one customhouses, each of which has four or five subordinate establishments; and at these stations, even when no duties are exigible, fees are charged by the native officers for the trouble of examination, and a good deal of delay is caused in the transmission of merchandise. These taxes are sources of annoyance and occasional extortion to the trading classes. They produce a gross sum of £1,800,000, which is reduced to £1,600,000 by the charges of collection, &c. We believe that a considerable portion of the revenue derived from these duties on traffic is laid out by the Company in the construction of roads and bridges, where improvements of this kind are most wanted. In 1843-4, the annual revenue was £17,015,973, but this large sum did not cover the expenditure, including interest on the debt due by the Company, which now amounts to about £40,000,000-the actual deficiency being £772,322. As India, by the taxes which it contributes to the Company, clears the cost of its own protection and all its other expenses, it may be considered as the only foreign possession of Britain whose connection is not a cause of loss to the mother country. By means of its vast import trade, India forms one of the best customers for British manufactures, and is therefore a source of wealth to the United Kingdom. [For particulars of export and import, see RESOURCES OF BRITISH EMPIRE, No. 62.] or other officer authorised for that purpose, at such port or place as aforesaid.' Clause 86 permits his majesty's natural-born subjects to purchase lands in India: 87 enacts that no native of India, or naturalborn subject of his majesty, shall, by reason only of his religion, place of birth, descent, colour, be disabled from holding any place, office, or employment under the Company: 112 enacts that the island of St Helena be placed under his majesty's government. By this act it will be perceived that several very important provisions are made for the benefit both of Hindoostan and Great Britain. India is henceforth open to the settlement of British emigrants; trade may be carried on freely with either India or China; and Indo-Britons, Hindoos, or other natives, are now placed on a level as to political, military, or civil distinctions, with Englishmen. It is stipulated that the governorgeneral in council is empowered to legislate for India, and for all persons, whether British or native, foreigners or others: if the laws thus made by the governorgeneral are disallowed by the authorities in England, they shall be annulled by the governor-general. In virtue of these arrangements, it is evident that India, with all its social improvements, retains very much of the character of a despotically-governed country; no part of the population having any right to interfere in the legislation or executive. To enlightened foreigners this may prove an inconvenience; but in the extraordinary As may be generally known, an act of parliament condition of the whole Indian territory, a more liberal was passed in the year 1813, permitting the free trad-policy would most likely be unsuitable, if not injurious. ing of British subjects with India, reserving the commerce of China to the Company; the territorial and commercial branches were separated, as well as all accounts connected with them; and the sovereign was empowered to create a bishop of India, and three archdeacons, to be paid by the Company. This act, which was in force till the 22d day of April 1834, did not afford perfect freedom of trade to India, yet it led towards that desirable result, and greatly increased the commerce with the East. By the act 3d and 4th Will. IV. cap. 85, passed in August 1833, entitled An act for effecting an arrangement with the East India Company, and for the better government of his Majesty's Indian territories, till the 30th day of April 1854,' the Company were deprived of the exclusive right of trading with China, and ordained to close the whole of their commercial business, and make sale of their merchandise, stores, and effects, so far as regarded commercial assets. It was further ordained that the whole debts of the Company should be chargeable upon the revenues of their Indian territories, but leaving a yearly dividend of 10 per cent. to be retained by the Company; this dividend to be redeemable by parliament. The Company to pay into the Bank of England £2,000,000 annually, till the sum of £12,000,000 is accumulated, as a security fund to the government. The other principal provisions were-A board of commissioners, to be appointed by the king, to superintend affairs of India; Bengal presidency to be divided into two presidencies -Fort-William (Calcutta) and Agra; the whole government, civil and military, of India, to be vested in a governor-general and councillors. The 81st clause is in these terms:- And be it enacted, That it shall be lawful for any natural-born subject of his majesty to proceed by sea to any port or place having a customhouse establishment within the said territories, and to reside thereat, or to proceed to and reside in, or pass through, any part of such of the said territories as were under the government of the said Company on the 1st day of January 1800, and in any part of the countries ceded by the nabob of the Carnatic, of the province of Cattack, and of the settlements of Singapore and Malacca, without any license whatever; provided that all subjects of his majesty, not natives of the said territories, shall, on their arrival in any port of the said territories, from any port or place not within the said territories, make known in writing their names, places of destination, and objects of pursuit in India, to the chief officer of the customs, As it is, England may expect to derive very great advantages from the policy pursued. To use the words of Dr Wallich, superintendent of the Company's botanic gardens at Calcutta- The Company's territories in India are productive of every article which can conduce to the happiness of men; and it only requires skill, and ingenuity, and encouragement, both to the natives and Europeans in India, to select everything that can possibly be desired.' As the Indian population possess a taste for British manufactures, a reciprocal benefit will be the result of every increase of intercourse. NATIVE POPULATION-HINDOOS. The bulk of the population of India is composed of Hindoos, the primitive inhabitants of the country, and forming one of the most ancient nations in the world. This race was distinguished for their humanity, gentleness, industry, and were polished by letters and arts, at a time when most of their Asiatic neighbours were yet only in the first stages of civilisation. This remarkable people have preserved their national character for thousands of years, even under the dominion of foreigners, and have retained to the present day their language, their written characters, their local government, religion, manners, customs, and habits of life. The Hindoos are in general of a brownish-yellow complexion, but the higher and richer classes are almost as white as Europeans. They are somewhat above the middle height, well proportioned, and very flexible and dexterous. Temperance, frugality, hospitality, and obliging manners, are the favourable traits in their character; but they are now reproached with indolence and avarice. With proper discipline, they form excellent soldiers and faithful servants of the Company. They possess great natural talents, but are at present deprived of opportunities for their development. They practise agriculture, breeding of cattle, fishing, hunting, and mining, and are largely engaged in manufactures, commerce, and navigation. They manufacture cloths of great variety and value, particularly cotton and silk, among which are the finest muslins and shawls, mats, cordovan leather, &c. and are inimitable in dyeing. In the arts of music and singing they are backward, but in dancing, statuary, and architecture, they are more advanced. They are acquainted with arithmetic, astronomy, and chronology, and are fond of poetry. The most extraordinary peculiarity in the Hindoos is their division into castes, or perfectly distinct orders of society, which have existed from the remotest times. There are four castes, and it is strictly enjoined by the | is more theoretic than practical. The altered state of Hindoo religion that no transition from one to another shall take place: no connection between them by marriage or any other way is allowed, and no individual of one class can assume the habits or engage in the occupations of another. The distinction is complete in every sense, hereditary and personal; all the privileges or disabilities are inherited; no one is permitted to become what he is destined to be by his natural abilities, but is obliged to become only what his birth permits, or to remain what it condemns him to be. The slightest transgression of these laws is punished with loss of caste, and sometimes, in particular cases, with death. Even the difference of food is precisely marked out. The three higher castes are prohibited entirely the use of flesh; the fourth is allowed all kinds except beef; all others are outcasts, and may eat what they please. Thus the lower the rank of the Hindoo, the less he is restricted in the matter of meat and drink; but, on the other hand, the burdensome restrictions increase with the inferiority of rank. The first, or most noble caste of the Hindoos, are denominated Brahmins; they are priests, scholars, teachers, lawyers, and state officers, and are required to be virtuous, learned, peaceable, just, and self-denying. The second order is the Kyetra, who are kings and warriors; and they are required to have a thirst for glory, to die rather than retreat, and to be generous to captives. They preserve the ancient name of Rajahpoots, by way of distinction, in their old hereditary dominions. The third order, which is called Bhysya', or Vaisa, are husbandmen and merchants. The fourth caste is that of the Soodras, who are labourers, and they are enjoined to serve with patience and fidelity. A lower caste, if it can be called such, are the Parias those unhappy beings who have lost their station in the noble orders, and who are obliged to do whatever no one else can do without pollution. They are not only reckoned unclean themselves, but they render unclean everything they touch. They are deprived of all civil privileges, and stigmatised by particular laws, regulating their mode of life, their houses, and their furniture; they are not allowed to enter the temples of the other orders, but must worship by themselves. Their houses are miserable hovels, distant from cities and villages. society has obliged members of the aristocratic castes to engage in divers eraployments or trades not permitted by their religion; but to accomplish this object, various subterfuges and self-deceptions are practised. Besides, there have arisen a prodigious variety of subdivisions by the intermixture of castes; and the employments allowed to these mixed or impure castes may be said to be every description of handicraft and occupation for which the wants of human society have created a demand. In point of fact, we are told by the best authority, that men of all castes may be seen working together in one handicraft employment. A kind of purity of caste is perhaps, nevertheless, kept up by the members of different castes not eating with each other, or not eating forbidden things. It is related that purity of caste is sustained by means of clubs or lodges scattered throughout Hindoostan, and existing in considerable force in every large town; yet it seems that excommunication from these fraternities is, upon the whole, unable to prevent the breaking down of ancient habits, or to subdue the disposition to imitate the English in the arts of civilised life. The Hindoo races are indeed described as now exceedingly anxious for improvement; and it is rational to expect that through the means of schools for education, and a conciliatory behaviour on the part of their British neighbours, they will attain no small degree of cultivation. HINDOO RELIGION AND LANGUAGE, The religious belief of the Hindoos is called Brahminism, and is founded on a most extensive collection of sacred records, of which the Brahmins are allowed to be the sole expounders. These sacred writings,' says Mr Statham, in his Indian Recollections,' 'are of two kinds-the Vedas and Shastres. The former may be termed their Scriptures, the latter expositions of them. Beass Muni-that is, Beass the Inspired, a prophet who lived in the reign of Judistheer, on the banks of the Jumna, near the present city of Delhi, collected all the detached pieces which form the Vedas, from all parts of India, and gave them their present form and arrangement. They are divided into four books, all written in the Sanscrit. The first book is called Rug Veda, which signifies the Science of DivinaThe Brahmins, who are not legitimately entitled to tion, concerning which it principally treats. The second possess property, and who must live upon the bounty is distinguished by the title of Sheham, which signifies of others for their support, cherish in the people the Piety or Devotion, and this book treats of religious and most debasing superstitions, and exact from them the moral duties. The third is the Judger Veda, which, as most profound veneration. Instead of being holy, the word implies, includes the whole science of Reliharmless, and undefiled, they are vicious, tyrannical, gious Rites and Ceremonies. The fourth is denomiavaricious, and to the last degree impure. This in-nated Obater Bah: in the Sanscrit, obater signifies the famous aristocracy is the curse of India, and presents a barrier to the attempts which have been made to meliorate the condition of the inferior orders. We believe the Kyetra and Bhysya castes are nearly extinct, and that the Hindoo nation is now composed principally of Brahmins and Soodras, with their subdivisions. These subdivisions are innumerable:-Every trade, every peculiar department of service, has its class, wherefore the retinue of servants to be kept is very large; for the man who carries in your water cannot wait at table, nor the man who cooks a dinner serve it up, nor the servant who waits at table sweep the room; and the same kind of classification goes on through all the pursuits of life. In a number of instances, Brahmins have become soldiers in the service of the East India Company, but without engaging in inenial employments; and they still claim precedence even of kings in point of etiquette. This rigorous classification of the Hindoos undoubtedly presents an obstacle to the advancement of Christianity, which, though hardly thought of by the British at home, is next to insurmountable, and will retard proselytism for an almost indefinite period. being or essence, and bah, good; this, literally interpreted, is the knowledge of the Good Being, and accordingly this book comprehends the whole science of theology and metaphysical philosophy. The Vedas, as also the Shastres or commentaries, pretend to great antiquity; so much so, that many Europeans have been strangely staggered in their belief of the Mosaic chronology by reading them. But it only requires a little consideration and research to discover a vein of imposition running through the whole of their details. They reckon the duration of the world by four ages, extending altogether to about eight millions of years; but the fallacy of this reckoning has been fully exposed by astronomical observation. The idea which the Shastres give of God is, that there is one Supreme Being, whom they style Bhogabon or Esher, sometimes Khodah; proceeding from him are three powers or deities-namely, Bruhmha, the Creator of all; Vishnu, the Preserver of all; and Seeb or Sheva, the Destroyer of all. Now, whilst the latter is worshipped by all, the former has scarcely any attention paid to his temples; and even Vishnu, the Preserver, has few votaries compared with the destroyer Seeb. From recent investigations, it appears that the fore- Subordinate to these are 330,000,000 inferior gods and going rigorous classification of the Hindoos is much less goddesses, each representing some peculiar virtue or an obstacle to improvement in manners than was for- vice. The Hindoos suppose that each of the three premerly supposed. It would seem that the classification | siding powers oftentimes seeks to encroach upon the prerogative of his compeer, and thus are often quarrel-ence to the prejudices of their Hindoo neighbours, and ling and seeking to subvert each other's arrangements.' a strong predilection towards many of their ceremoOne of their most superstitious practices consists in nies.' The warlike portion of the Mohammedans havworshipping or deifying the waters of the Ganges. ing recently been dislodged by the British from the This large and beautiful river extends from west to Mahratta courts, where they had found shelter, they east across an extensive district in Hindoostan Proper, have been obliged to seek employment in inferior staand with its tributaries may be reached by a very tions. The Mohammedans of India are more intellarge proportion of inhabitants in the most populous ligent, and possess greater strength and courage, than and productive part of India. The sacred ceremony of the Hindoos; but they are also more proud, jealous, adoring the Ganges consists in the population crowding revengeful, and rapacious, and their fidelity is much morning and evening to bathe in it, and quantities of less relied on by the British government. In some the water are carried to all parts of India, and are districts the Mohammedan population is nearly as sworn by in courts of justice. numerous as that of the Hindoos, and both seem to live in a state of mutual amity. The cow is an animal held sacred among the Hindoos, and cow-dung is used in the temples and other Besides the Hindoos and Mohammedans, there are places as a species of holy ointment. The lotus, a plant various scattered tribes in India, of a very different with tall luxuriant leaves, is likewise held in deep vene-character from either, and often inhabiting mountainous ration. Some of the temples or pagodas of the Hindoos are of high antiquity and gigantic conception, majestic appearance, and tasteful architecture. The entrance is always made in a huge pyramid, in a number of storeys, which gradually grow narrower as they approach the top. Inside may be seen the cow lying down, a serpent, or some other object of adoration. Here sacrifices take place. One of the most extensive pagodas of India is that of Juggernaut, whose towers are seen at twenty miles' distance. Here, as at other places, there are processions of idol cars, large heavy ornamented structures, which are dragged along by the multitude amid the shouts of assembled thousands. As the wheels pass swiftly on, self-devoted victims rush forward, throw themselves before them, and are crushed to death, exulting in the hope of thus securing a passage to the celestial abodes. The practice of widows sacrificing themselves on the funeral pile of their husbands, is another horrid rite; but it has been suppressed in recent times by the British government. tracts of country, and called Garrows, Monguls, Tartars, &c. Among the different races is found that of the Parsees or Persians, the ancient worshippers of fire, long since driven from their native country by the per secuting sword of the Arabs. Many of this people are opulent, and they take the lead in the commercial transactions of Bombay, Surat, and other north-western parts. Their general conduct is quiet and respectable. Besides Brahiminism, there are a variety of religious beliefs and sects in India, but all less or more founded on the most gross superstitions. Each possesses its own temples, images, and orders of priesthood. The Boodhists, previous to their violent expulsion by the Hindoos, were second in point of numbers; but their religion is now little known in India, and is confined chiefly to Thibet, Birmah, Siam, and Ceylon. There are, it is believed, four original languages in India, and of these there are some hundreds of dialects, differing less or more from each other and from the originals, and maintaining also a partial distinction from the introduction of Arabic, Persiac, and other foreign words. While, however, each tribe has its own peculiar dialect, all use one language, the Sanscrit, in their sacred writings. The Sanscrit is a dead language, though probably once spoken; it is wonderfully perfect in its construction, and extremely copious. Its alphabet is called Devanagari, divine alphabet, because it is said to have had its origin from the gods, whose language it is; it consists of fifty letters, and has three genders. The next language in estimation is the Pracrit, which comprehends the various dialects used in common writing and social intercourse. The dialects of the Pracrit are spoken in Bengal, and include that which is called Hindoostanee, the principal spoken tongue in India. MOHAMMEDANS AND OTHER CLASSES. Notwithstanding what has been related of the strictness of the Hindoos regarding modes of living, they seem liable to fall in with European usages. In Calcutta and other large towns, many of the wealthy natives imitate the British in their dress, household furniture, equipages, and style of living, and show a strong desire to mix in their social parties, to which, however, they rarely find access. The English take no pains to conciliate the friendship of the native tribes, however well behaved and intelligent they may be. Of this foolish, surly, national pride,' says Bishop Heber, I see but too many instances daily, and I am convinced it does us much harm in this country. We are not guilty of injustice, or wilful oppression, but we shut out the natives from our society, and a bullying, insolent manner is continually assumed in speaking to them.' The exclusiveness of this species of hauteur is perhaps fully more remarkable with respect to that class of persons who have drawn their origin from the intercourse betwixt the English and natives. These Indo-British, as they are called, form a part of the population of Calcutta, and are a very interesting and increasing people. Many of them,' says Statham, are very opulent, and others can vie with the more cultivated of their European neighbours in literary attainments; notwithstanding this, there is a marked contempt shown them by Europeans generally. If a European lady should wed with an Indo-Briton, the doors of all the higher circles would be closed against her, however rich the man of her choice might be.' This state of things will happily be modified by the provisions of the act already noticed. RURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PRODUCTS. In the large and fertile territory of Bengal, as well as in all other parts of India where the cultivation of the soil is pursued, the art of the husbandman is, as may be expected, still in the rudest state; and in every quarter there exists great room for improvement, which nothing could so well facilitate as the settlement of According to Mr Hamilton, the modern Moham-intelligent European families. In the inundated dismedans may with safety be estimated at one-seventh tricts of Bengal, rice is the main crop which is raised, of the total population; and notwithstanding the sub- at least during the wet season: it grows to its greatest version of their political predominance by a Christian height while the lands are overflowed, and is frequently power, their religion continues to expand. They are reaped by men in canoes, the ear only being cut off, no longer, however, the sanguinary zealots who, eight and the stalk left. When the peasants go to market hundred years ago, in the name of God and the prophet, during the height of the flood, they take their families spread desolation and slaughter among the unconverted with them, lest the house should be washed off during pagans. Open violence produced little effect on so their absence with the boats. Rice is the summer patient a people; and although the Mohammedans sub-crop, requiring much heat and moisture; but during sequently lived for centuries intermixed with Hindoos, the cool dry season, from November to April, they no radical change was produced in the manners or sow and reap another harvest, consisting of wheat, tenets of the latter; on the contrary, for almost a cen- barley, or different kinds of pulse: this is called the tury past, the Mohammedans have evinced much defer- dry crop, because it is reared without flooding the lands; the rice being considered as the wet crop, for a contrary | called short staple,' and being coarse in quality, and reason. There are therefore two seed-times and two harvests. Besides these regular crops, many small grains are sown, which are limited to no particular season of the year, and which reward the industry of the cultivator with a rich vegetation at all times. badly cleaned, it fetches only two-thirds of the price of Besides the different kinds of grain, the farmers of Bengal raise a number of other products, of great value. Of these, one of the principal is indigo: this is a small plant, shrubby in its growth, but in its leaves and flowers very much like the common tares of this country; it is sown during the rains, and raised in rows or drills. The leaves only are useful, on which account it is cut repeatedly, without being allowed to flower, which would make it drier and less juicy. The leaves are steeped and beaten in a vat among water; after which the liquid is strained through cloths, and set to evaporate in shallow troughs placed in the shade. This is soon effected in that warm dry climate; and the indigo is then found deposited in a crust at the bottom. The process requires much preparation and expense; and it has only succeeded well since the country has enjoyed peace, and there has been a prospect of employing large capitals with security. It now produces, however, a large return to the cultivators; and gives a new source of wealth to the country. It is cultivated along the whole course of the Ganges up to Delhi, and is an annual in the lower, but a triennial in the upper provinces. It succeeds best on overflowed grounds, and in dry seasons is apt to fail. The number of factories of indigo in the Bengal presidency is estimated at 300 or 400. A few of them belong to natives; but they are chiefly in the hands of Englishmen, who take leases of 10,000 or 20,000 acres of land, in the name of native servants (not being allowed to hold it in their The bamboo, a species of cane or reed, is, much culown), from a zemindar for the purpose. They encou- tivated in Bengal. It grows to the amazing height of rage the ryots (native cultivators) to raise crops of the forty feet; and though it arrives at perfection in two plant, by making advances to them in money. They years, it has all the firmness of the hardest timber. It purchase the produce at a price agreed on, and erect has joints like a reed, or like grass, and is, like them, works for extracting the dye from the plant; the whole quite hollow; yet it is so strong that the porters of the of the operations being generally conducted by native country use it for suspending the heaviest burthens labourers, under native superintendents. It is observed between their shoulders. It is used for beams and that the establishment of such factories raises the value uprights in building houses; and being protected from of land, extends cultivation, and spreads a certain de- damp by a kind of natural varnish, it will last in such gree of improvement in the villages. The importa- situations for a hundred years. It serves also for tion of Bengal indigo into Britain began about forty making bridges, for the masts of small boats, and for years ago, and has since increased to an amazing extent. innumerable other purposes; yet of this useful mateIt is calculated that about 11,000,000 lbs. are annually rial, one acre of land will yield ten times as much as exported from the country, of which 7,000,000 lbs. come the same space will produce of other wood. None of to Britain, and the rest goes to America, France, Ger- the productions of India puts so many conveniences, in many, Sweden, &c. In Bengal alone £1,680,000 are regard to furniture, houses, boats, &c. within reach of expended for rent and labour in its production, and it the poorer classes, as the bamboo. It would require a realises in Europe a sum of £3,600,000. In the coun-volume to mention even the names of the plants useful tries named, Bengal indigo is silently obtaining a pre- to man which flourish in the luxuriant soil of Benference over every other. gal. Cotton, tobacco, the opium poppy, rape (which is cultivated for the sake of its oil), cucumbers, vegetable marrow (as one of the gourd tribe is called), and innumerable other plants, always afford a plentiful harvest. Of fruit-trees there are the mango, which is something like our peach, the date-tree, the tamarind, the guava, the pomegranate, and others. Another production, which is peculiar to warm climates, and which grows in high perfection along the sea-coasts, is the cocoa-palm. This tree would of itself be almost sufficient for the subsistence of mankind in the countries where it grows, so various and useful are its products; indeed there are some populous islands-the Maldives and Laccadives-where little else is cultivated. Silk is raised in great quantities in Bengal and Orissa, between the latitudes of 22° and 26°, and it has hitherto been very nearly a monopoly in the hands of the Company. It is chiefly produced by the native Indian worm, which affords four crops, or sometimes six in the year: the Italian worm, which was introduced half a century ago, yields only one crop a year, but of a finer quality. The Indian silk, compared with the best European varieties, is foul, uneven, and wants staple;' but its cheapness has brought it into extensive consumption. The Company have eleven factories, or filatures,' which form the centres of circles,' within which the cultivation of silk is carried on, each having a certain number of subordinate stations. The silk, in the raw state, is purchased from the ryots at the factories or sub-flourish, and is likely to become of great importance to factories, wound off the cocoons, and prepared for transmission to Europe. About 2,000,000 lbs. are annually brought to England, of which a very small quantity (one per cent.) is equal to the finest silk; the mass of it is decidedly inferior. There is strong ground to conclude, however, that the production of silk in India will yet be greatly increased. Cotton has long been cultivated by the natives in all the three presidencies. It is universally of the kind In the interior of India, the tea-plant is said to the trade of the country. Districts lying between the 26th and 28th degrees of north latitude, and the 94th and 96th degrees of east longitude, are described as possessing this shrub in abundance, and of a quality equal to that of China. In Assam, which lies between Bengal and Thibet, the attempt has lately been made to cultivate and gather the product of the tea-plant for purposes of commerce. In 1838, ninety chests of it were imported into London, and found to be of a good quality. |