Tuis large and important member of the British Isles is washed on the south, west, and north by the waters of the Atlantic, and on the east by a strait-called at different places the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel-which separates it from the larger island of Great Britain. The width of this strait is variable, being about 47 miles between St David's Head in Wales and Carnsore Point in Ireland, about 55 between Holyhead and Dublin, and only 13 between the Mull of Cantire and the opposite point of Fairhead. More compact in form than Great Britain, Ireland is, nevertheless, indented by a number of bays and estuaries, which give it an irregular coast-line of not less than 2200 miles. It lies between lat. 51° 25' and 55° 23′ north, and between long. 5° 28′ and 10° 35′ west. Its greatest length, from Crowhead on the southwest to Fairhead on the north-east, is 306 miles, but on any meridian not more than 235; its greatest breadth, between the extreme points of Mayo and Down, 182 miles; its least, between Galway Bay and Dublin, 110. Its entire area is estimated at 31,874 square miles, or about 20,808,271 statute acres. Of this area, about 13,000,000 acres are under cultivation, such as it is; 6,200,000 uncultivated; 375,000 in plantations; and 631,000 of water. Of the 6,200,000 uncultivated acres, not more than 2,500,000 are unsusceptible of improvement; the rest might be improved either for pasture or for tillage.

SUPERFICIAL FEATURES.

In superficial character, Ireland may be considered as an undulating or hilly country less rugged than the Highlands of Scotland, and not so tame as the eastern section of England. Its hills are generally more rounded than abrupt, and lie in detached clusters rather than in chains or ranges. One of the best defined ranges is the Slievh Bloom, occupying a somewhat central position, and running in a southerly direction between King's and Queen's Counties through the north of Tipperary. In this range, the highest point of which is 1690 feet, the rivers Barrow, Nore, and Suir, commonly called the Three Sisters,' take their risc. The Mourne mountains, a small, but well-defined range, No, 66,

occupying the southern angle of Down, have a culminating point in Slievh Donard, 2809 feet above the sea. It may be here observed that wherever the Irish term slievh is applied to a mountain, it expresses that that mountain forms part of a range. From Dublin Bay southward through Wicklow, there is an irregular range, whose extreme height is 3039 feet, descending in the lateral branch of the Croghans to 2060 feet. In the northern and western parts of the island, several irregular clusters occasion considerable diversity of surface; and in the south, the country is decidedly hilly, the ranges running somewhat parallel, but attaining to no great elevation unless around Killarney, where Macgillicuddy Reeks rise in Gurrane Tual to 3405 feet, being the highest point in Ireland.

The flat or level portions of the island, with the exception of some fine tracts of fertile valley-land in Kilkenny, Tipperary, and Limerick, consist mainly of bog or morass, which occupy, according to Dr Kane, 2,830,000 acres, or about a sixth part of the entire superficies. The largest of these morasses is the Bog of Allen, which stretches in a vast plain across the centre of the island, or over a large portion of Kildare, Carlow, King's and Queen's Counties-having a summit elevation of 280 feet, in which the Boyne and some lesser rivers take their rise. Along the banks of the river Inny-which, rising in Lough Iron, in county Westmeath, crosses Longford, and falls into the Shannon-are large tracts of deep, wet bog, only exceeded in dreariness by that which for miles skirts the Shannon in its course through Longford, Roscommon, and King's County. These bogs consist of turf or peat in various degrees of condensation-from a pulpy or fibrous mass, to a compact mass that admits of being cut into any form. They rest on a substratum of clay and limestone gravel, are from 15 to 40 feet in depth, and are composed chiefly of aquatic vegetables, which have grown on the sites where they are now entombed.

It is worthy of remark, that notwithstanding the quantity of water contained in these extensive bogs, there arises from them no miasma injurious to health. This is attributable to the large portion of tannin they contain, which possesses so strong an antiseptic quality, that bodies plunged into a deep bog remain undecayed, the flesh becoming like that of an Egyptian mummy. It sometimes happens that a bog, overcharged with water during a rainy season, breaks through the obstruction which the drained and more solid part affords, and, rushing forward, overflows large portions of good land. This occurred in the year 1821, when the Bog of Clara, in the county of Westmeath, suddenly burst into the valley of the River Brusna, and totally destroyed many hundred acres of excellent land: a similar occurrence took place, to a large extent, a very few years since in the county of Antrim.

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.

The rock formations of Ireland commence with the primary schists and slates, and terminate, generally speaking, with the coal-measures. The igneous rocks are granites, greenstones, traps, and columnar basalt, which is displayed in unparalleled symmetry at the Giants' Causeway in Antrim. The primary rocksnamely, mica-slate, quartz, marble, serpentine, clayslate, &c.-form a broad rugged fringe all around the island, making the interior a sort of basin, in which successively appear the old red sandstone, carboniferous limestone, and superimposed coal-measures. Breaking through the primaries, and occupying a considerable portion of the surface, are the granites and greenstones; trap and tabular greenstone more commonly disrupt the secondary rocks; and the basalt of the Giants'

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acres.

10 to 12 miles-covering an area of 100,000 acres; it is of considerable depth, navigable, and its surface only 48 feet above sea-level. Erne, also in Ulster, consists properly of two sheets, occupying an area of 40,000 Both are studded with islets, and lay claim to some share of picturesque beauty. Lough Derg, a small sheet in the same province, contains some islets, in one of which is situated St Patrick's Purgatory-a narrow cave, which has long been a noted place of pilgrimage. In Connaught are the large irregular expanses Conn, Mask, and Corrib, remarkable as being respectively 30, 21, and 16 feet above sea-level. The principal lakes in the course of the Shannon are Allen, Ree, and Derg; the first 160 feet, and the last 98 feet above ordinary sea-level. The lakes of Killarney, like those of Cumberland, are more celebrated for their picturesque beauty than for their extent. They consist of three connected sheets, lying in the bosom of the Kerry mountains; are thickly studded with islands, present outlines the most irregular, and surrounding scenery of the most opposite and diversified character.

CLIMATE.

The climate of Ireland is remarkable for its mildness and humidity-results arising, in the first place, from its being surrounded by the Atlantic, from which no portion of its interior is distant more than 50 miles; and in the second, from the comparatively small elevation which the generality of its land attains. This mildness is proved by the fact, that even in the northern county of Donegal, the arbutus, laurustinus, agapanthus, and fuchsia grow healthily in the open air, and myrtles so luxuriantly as to cover the walls of houses up to the second storey. Its humidity, though great, differs considerably in different districts, the southwest and west receiving, on an average, 42 inches of rain annually; while in Armagh, for example, there falls little more than half that amount.

The prevailing winds are the west and south-west; indeed winds from a westerly direction blow for nearly three-fourths of the year. These, tempered by the warm currents of the Atlantic, and surcharged with its vapours, produce mild, but extremely variable seasons along the south and west; and though snow seldom lies, even on the highest hills, and verdure is everywhere promoted, yet an early wet autumn often obstructs the harvest, and thus renders winter, properly so called, longer than in England. Difference of latitude has its usual effect, though somewhat less perceptible. Thus in the southern counties spring is earlier, fruit ripens a fortnight sooner, and the harvest is fit for the sickle a month before that of the northern, and about a fortnight before that of the midland districts.

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

The native Flora and Fauna of Ireland generally resemble those of the neighbouring island; the cultivated plants and domesticated animals are identical. There are, however, some species peculiar to the island, of which the following are the most remarkable :-The strawberry-tree, found at Killarney, particularly beautiful from its abundance of red fruit; the Irish rose, found near Belfast; the Irish furze, found sparingly in Down, distinguished from common furze by its upright mode of growth and softer texture; the Irish or Florencourt yew, of upright growth and dark-green foliage, resembling that of the cypress; the Irish menziesia, whose large purple heath-like bells decorate the wild districts of Galway; the Corsican and other species of heaths, found also in Spain and the islands of the Mediterranean; and carigeen or Irish moss-a sea-weed of some commercial importance.

At present, Ireland is not entitled to the character of a well-wooded country-a defect which is fast being remedied by extensive plantations; but we have historical evidence, as well as the indubitable records of her bogs, that at no very remote period large tracts were covered with a gigantic growth of the ordinary foresttrees. Morrison (1596) and Davis (1605) mention the

forests in which the poor Irish took refuge; and all the scenery of Spenser's Faery Queen' is drawn from the River Bandon, which he celebrates as the pleasant Bandon, wood y-crowned,' as it is to this day. Boate, in his Natural History,' mentions the great extent of wood then standing; but not long did it so stand, for wherever Cromwell's army came, the forests were felled and the country laid bare. There are still, however, in a few favoured spots, some remains of the ancient oak and ash woods, as at Killarney, at Glengariffe near Bantry, in Connemara, in some spots of the county of Wicklow, and in Donegal, near the beautiful, but little Lough Van, where a few red deer are still to be seen. The plantations in Ireland, in 1841, were thus estimated in acreable extent:-Oak, 29,536 acres; ash, 6042; elm, 1417; beech, 3274; fir, 25,239; mixed, 280,096-making a total of 345,604 acres.

With respect to the animal kingdom, the elk has passed away, leaving its skeleton and antlers in the bogs as memorials of its gigantic size; the wolf has disappeared since the time of the Commonwealth; the wolf-dog is still to be met with, though rarely; the reddeer frequents the wild mountain districts of Kerry; the eagle inhabits the western coast of Connaught; the Irish falcon of our ancestors is, we believe, extinct; the gourdet claims the Blasquets as his own peculiar residence; and the gillaroo and dorchar trouts are limited to Lough Neagh. Of the domesticated animals, though these are now generally cross-breeds, Ireland possesses some varieties regarded as peculiar-namely, the Irish black horse, the Kerry and old Irish breeds of the ox, a worthless wiry-wooled sheep, and a long-legged narrow-bodied pig (See from Nos. 37 to 40 inclusive). In consequence, it is presumed, of the humidity of the soil and climate, the adder and snake are unknown, as is also the mole; but, contrary to the vulgar notion, frogs and toads are by no means uncommon.

PEOPLE-POPULATION.

The bulk of the Irish people are a branch of the Celtic race, who were probably the first settlers in the island. The peasantry throughout nearly the whole country are of this origin, and in many parts they still speak the Celtic (here termed the Irish) language. The chief exception from this rule is in the north, where a great number of the humbler, as well as middle - classes, are descended from comparatively recent settlers of Scottish extraction. Another rather conspicuous exception is found in Connaught, particularly in Galway, where a considerable number of the people seem to be of Spanish descent. Families of English extraction are comparatively rare amongst the labouring-class in Ireland; but a large portion of the upper and middle-classes are of Saxon descent, and differ little from the same ranks in Great Britain.

Limiting the consideration of the social state of Ireland to what is peculiar to it, we may first advert to a conspicuous practice of the landowners-absenteeism. By absentees are not meant those noblemen who, being Englishmen, have also large possessions in this country, and whose estates (with some glaring exceptions) are usually well and justly managed; but those sons of Erin who prefer living in any other country to remaining in their own, although it is at home only that a man receives his just meed of respect. This system of absenteeism has led to that of middlemen, who hold large tracts of land from the head landlord, and relet this land at a much increased rent to farmers; these, again, set to a third set of under-tenants at rack-rents; and this lowest grade of tenantry divide their small farms among their sons; thus creating a race of farming poor, who are unable to till their holdings properly, and miserably increasing a population raised but a step above the pauper. There is perhaps no more thriving person than the farming-landholder, who, contented with his condition, rises with his labourers, holds his own plough, and superintends the management of his farmn; but the state of the cottier is often far from being a happy one. The discomfort of this class may be said

to arise chiefly from three causes-low wages, high | rents, and, most of all, from the want of steady employment. The too great subdivision of land, as will be shown in treating of the condition of the peasantry in the provinces, is another cause of the general poverty and want of comfort of the cottier. Under the excitement of war prices and the free trade in corn with Great Britain, agriculture advanced rapidly, and consequently so did the demand for labour; land rose in value, lessees were tempted to realise profit-rents by subletting their farms; and thus the land was let in still smaller divisions and at extreme rents. This system was an absolute bar to the encouragement which might have been given to the tenantry by the proprietors of estates. The occupying landlord pays a higher rent to the middleman than does the middleman to the proprietor, because the middleman exacts as much as he can get, without any reference to the future situation of the tenant: but the landlord has different feelings he looks forward, and considers the reversionary interest which he has in keeping his tenant in prosperity, and his land in a state to yield a remunerating profit.

The habits of getting credit frequently at an advance of 50 per cent., of resorting to pawnbrokers, and of forming early marriages, contribute to the impoverishment of the labouring-classes in Ireland. The poorer the individuals are, the more eager are they for wedlock; even the very beggars, and their name is legion, intermarry. It must, however, be admitted as some excuse, that early marriage is much encouraged by the Romish priesthood; and in fairness it must be added, that this practice contributes exceedingly to the morality of the lower classes. The superstitious regard to wakes and funerals, which has been handed down from ancient times, is often a deplorable drain on the slender resources of the peasant.

In considering the character of the Irish peasantry in general, it is refreshing to see some noble traits standing out in full relief against the darker shades. The Irish people are of acknowledged bravery, proverbial hospitality, affectionate to their parents and aged relatives, and charitable to the mendicant, if that, in the present social state of their country, can be considered a virtue. The women, generally speaking, are modest and irreproachable in their conduct; and it must be added, that notwithstanding the crime and wretchedness which oppress the country, the poor Irish are free from some species of vice which are but too common in other countries. During the hay and corn harvests of England and Scotland, the services of the Irish labourers are very important. They are generally sober, well-conducted, and inoffensive; labouring hard and living hard, that they may bring their earnings home to pay the rent of their little farm or dwelling. A spalpeen, or harvest-man, carries home from four to eight or ten pounds; to do which he is contented, while away, almost to starve himself. There is reason, therefore, to hope that, under a better state of things, the national character would rise to a standard much higher than it has yet attained; and improvement may reasonably be expected from the legislative efforts now in course of development.

The last, but by no means most miserable class in Ireland, is that of the common vagrant. Of these, some are beggars by profession; some are obliged, from loss of employment, to become what are called walkers; and others are mendicants for a time only, as when their husbands are reaping the harvests in England, at which time it is customary to lock up the house, and the wife and children walk the world until the traveller returns with his little hoard of hard-earned money. It may be asserted that in every district of Ireland, excepting some peculiarly-circumstanced portions of Ulster, there is a feeling of respect towards mendicancy, which tends to support and perpetuate it. The poor tenants of the cabins receive the wanderers, whether single or in groups; and carrying, as these do, their bedding along with them, a warm corner is allowed them even in the only room possessed. It is the

humblest sort,' say they,' that are really good to us.' The vagrants that frequent fairs, markets, patrons, holy wells, and other places of religious or pleasurable resort, are better off than the other poor. A respectable evidence declared to the commissioners on the Poor-Law Inquiry in the county of Meath, that the beggars at fairs were as jolly a set as ever he saw in his life;' and in more places than one, it was stated to the commissioners that the beggars were better off than the tradesmen or labourers.

Hitherto, the usual methods of supporting the pauper poor have been congregational collections, subscriptions, very extensive private charity, and of late years the application of the resources of the Mendicity Association; but the inefficiency of these means has ultimately led to the establishment of a Poor-Law, the general object of which is to relieve the destitution of the country. (See No. 62, p. 192.) It appears that so far as the poor-law system is as yet brought into operation, it is imperfect, and has not relieved the districts in which it has been carried into effect from the annoyance of mendicity, inasmuch as there is no compulsory law for retaining vagrants in the poorhouses; they therefore leave them at pleasure, to follow the more agreeable course of begging in the streets. Until such enactment be passed, or begging be declared an offence, Ireland, it would seem, will be subject to a severe taxation in support of the poor-law system, while at the same time it is not relieved of the evils of mendicancy. The population of Ireland was estimated by an acute statesman of the reign of Charles II. as being then about 1,100,000. Another estimate formed in 1731, but upon data not perfectly to be relied on, made the population 2,010,221. This last number seems to have been doubled before 1788, till which time Ireland was almost exclusively a pastoral country. Since then, agriculture and commerce have borne more conspicuous parts in the national industry; but circumstances unfavourable to national happiness and wealth have also been strongly operative, and the progress of the people was, till a very late date, upon the whole downward. In proportion to the unfavourable circumstances, and most of all where the circumstances have been the most unfavourable, the population has increased. It was at the first regular census in 1821, 6,801,827; at that of 1831,7,767,401; and at that of 1841, 8,175,124.

NATIONAL INDUSTRY-COMMERCE.

The national industry of Ireland, considering her fertile soil, her maritime, mineral, and other resources, is vastly inferior to what, under proper management, it ought to be. Her agriculture and husbandry, with a few exceptions, are wretched in the extreme; and yet, notwithstanding, large quantities of grain, cattle, pigs, butter, ham, and eggs, are annually exported to the markets of Great Britain. Potatoes, until the almost universal blights of 1846-7-8, have been the principal crop; oats next in order; barley and wheat but sparingly; flax in considerable quantities; turnips, beet, and other green crops are only as yet coming into culture. The same remarks are applicable to her fisheries, which are neglected in an unaccountable manner. The surrounding seas swarm with cod, ling, hake, herrings, pilchards, sprats, &c.; and yet the main supply of salt-fish is obtained from Scotland. Eels and salmon frequent most of the rivers, and are caught in considerable quantities, the northern rivers furnishing part of the supply in the English markets.

Ireland,' says Mr M'Culloch, is not, and never has been, a manufacturing country. Its unsettled, turbulent state, and the general dependence of the population on land, have hitherto formed insuperable obstacles to the formation of great manufacturing establishments in most parts of the country; whilst the want of coal, capital, and skilful workmen, and the great ascendancy of England and Scotland in all departments of manufacture, will, there is reason to think, hinder Ireland from ever attaining eminence in this department.' Linen may be regarded as the staple