few attain perfection. The main harvest is hay-the rearing of
cattle forming, with fishing, the principal occupation of the
people. There are no regular manufactures: stockings and mit-
tens, however, knitted by the women, form articles of export;
as do also wool, skins, dried fish, oil, cider-down, &c.
The Faroe Islands, also in the Northern Ocean, lie between
lat. 61° 30′ and 62° 20′ north, and long. 6° and 8° west; about 185

miles north-west of the Shetland Islands, and 320 south-east of
Iceland. The group consists of 22 bold rocky isles, 16 of which

are inhabited; have an aggregate area of 495 square miles, and a Scandinavian population of 7000. The surface of the land consists of a succession of hills (the highest 2240 feet), with intervening stripes of valley, covered with a thin soil, on which is grown potatoes, turnips, and occasional patches of barley; hay, as in Iceland, being the principal crop. There are no trees, but there is abundance of peat for fuel, as well as coal. The wealth of the population arises chiefly from sheep-rearing, fishing, and fowling.

SWEDEN.

| The cultivated products consist chiefly of rye, barley, oats, wheat, potatoes, peas, hemp and flax, buckwheat, madder, hops, and woad in the south; but as we proceed northward, most of these disappear, and oats, barley, maslin (a mixture of barley and oats), and potatoes are alone cultivated-oats ripening so far as 63° north, and a coarse variety of barley even to the limits of the pine-woods in 69° 30'. The principal wild animals are the bear, wolf, wolverine, fox, lynx, badger, otter, squirrel, lemming, and other small rodents; with a few scattered members of the beaver family. Game-birds are everywhere rife, from the partridge to the capercailzie; rapacious species, as the golden-eagle, sea-eagle, horned and snowy owl, are also frequent; and aquatic birds, as the swan, geese, and a variety of ducks, appear in great abundance, either permanently or migrant. Seals and porpoises are found in the Baltic, whose waters also furnish plentiful supplies of cod, sole, turbot, pilchard, herring, stremming, mackerel, oysters, &c.; while in the rivers and lakes are sturgeon, salmon, trout, pike, and perch.

This country occupies the eastern and more important section of the Scandinavian peninsula, and is situated between lat. 55° 20′ and 69° north, and long. The inhabitants, with the exception of a few Finns 11° 10' and 24° 12' east. Its extreme length is about and Laplanders, are wholly of Gothic descent, speaking 965 miles, and its average breadth 188: the area, a variety or dialect of the old Norse-the common root including islands, is computed at 170,220 square miles. of the Danish, Norwegian, and other tongues. The Physically, the country presents several districts of religion of the state, and that to which almost the very different aspect; the whole, however, declining whole population adhere, is the Lutheran, adminifrom the Kölen and Dofrine ranges towards the basin stered by 1 archbishop, 11 bishops, and about 3000 of the Baltic. Starting with these, which have the inferior clergy. All other creeds are tolerated, but character of an irregular table-land, about 20 or 25 none but Lutherans are eligible to any employment miles across, and only at intervals studded with moun- under the state. The educational institutions of the tains of more than 5000 feet high, we find the gene- country are of a superior description, and, like the ral elevation between 2000 and 2800 feet, covered with church, are upheld and supervised by the state. There straggling forests of pine and birch, and intersected are upwards of 3000 elementary schools; high-schools by narrow valleys, whose depressions are occupied by or gymnasia in all the provincial capitals; and two lakes and torrents. From this tract the country de- universities-namely, that of Upsala and Lund. Atscends by steps or plateaux-the first being of no great tendance at the primary schools is not compulsory; breadth, and from 700 to 800 feet above the sea; the but every adult must give proof of ability to read the second about 280 feet high, and more than 40 miles in Scriptures before he can exercise any act of majority. breadth; the third from 90 to 110 feet; and lastly, a Industrially, the Swedes are a busy, hardy, clearfringe of inconsiderable elevation above the Baltic. headed, and progressive people. Of late years governThroughout the whole of these, the rivers which risement has given great encouragement to agriculture, and in the mountain plateau hold on their course, present- the spirit being participated by the landholders, a very ing numerous rapids and waterfalls; only a few of perceptible improvement has taken place so much so, them, as the Angermans, being navigable during the indeed, that from requiring imports of corn in 1826, two last stages of their descent. Such is the superficial Sweden is now a corn-exporting country. The fisheries character of Nordland and part of Sweden Proper. As-principally in herring, stremming, salmon, white fish, we travel southwards through the latter territory, the and lobster-are extensively and profitably conducted; face of the country becomes flat, or only diversified by and mining, especially in iron and copper, employs a the insignificant ridges which enclose the great lakes considerable number of hands-about 90,000 tons of Wener, Wetter, &c. South of the lakes, the greater bar-iron being produced annually, and not less than part of Gothland presents the same low and sandy 800 tons of copper. The manufactures are chiefly character as the opposite coast of Denmark, and evi- domestic, the peasantry supplying themselves, as windently belongs to the same recent marine formation. ter employment, with nearly all the coarse woollens, The most important mineral products are-iron (the best linens, and cottons they require. There are, however, in Europe), copper, and lead in abundance; cobalt, some cloth factories, sugar refineries, distilleries, leather, zinc, antimony, gold and silver in minor quantities; paper, soap, and glass-works in the larger towns. marble, porphyry, limestone, and potters' clay.

Respecting climate, Nordland, part of which lies within the Arctic Circle, has from five to six months of winter; snow and ice then covering the mountains and rivers, and locking up the waters of the Gulf of Bothnia. On the other hand, the summer is sudden and short, but excessively warm; at midsummer, the sun never falls beneath the horizon north of Tornea; and the crops of oats and barley come to maturity in six or eight weeks. In the central parts, winter lasts only about four months, but is severe enough in most seasons to lock up the Baltic; and in the southern level tracts, the climate is very similar to that of northern Germany.

The vegetable productions, as might be expected from the high latitude and natural poverty of the soil, are by no means abundant. In the forests, which cover about 98,000 square miles, pines, firs, alders, and birches are prevalent in the north; these, with oak, elm, and ash in the central districts; and the beech, chestnut, mulberry, &c. only in the south. Apples, pears, and other garden fruits are grown in Gothland; the gooseberry family even within the Arctic Circle.

The government is a limited monarchy, hereditary in the male line, and restricted to the Lutheran creed. The legislative power is vested in the king and representative Diet, consisting of four chambers-namely, nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasantry. The executive is managed by the king and a state council.

NORWAY.

Norway occupies the western section of the Scandinavian peninsula; extends from lat. 58° to 71° 10' north, and from long. 5° to 31° east; and is bounded on the west and north by the Northern Ocean, east by Russian Lapland and Sweden, and south by the Skager Rack. Its greatest length is upwards of 1100 miles, and average breadth 50; area 134,300 sq. miles.

The general aspect of the country is bleak, rugged, and sterile; the shores are rocky and precipitous, and on the west fenced by numerous small islands, and indented by fiords. The interior consists chiefly of the mountain masses of the Kölen and Dofrefelds; rising in the north almost from the water's edge, and in the south spread out in plateaux or fjelds, intersected by

narrow valleys susceptible of a scanty culture, or by | water lagoons, which communicate with the Baltic by steep ravines, down which impetuous rivers cleave their navigable openings; and the celebrated thermal springs way by rapids and waterfalls. The lowest tracts, and of Aix-la-Chapelle (143°). those to which cultivation is chiefly limited, occur round Christiana fiord, and the adjoining shores of the Skager Rack, or to the south and east of the Bay of Trondheim. The geology of the country is primary, and yields, like the contiguous parts of Sweden, iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, marble, and slate.

the polar bear, the black and brown bears of the forest, the reindeer, elk, urus, wild horse of the Ukraine, wolf, blue fox, lynx, beaver, sable, ermine, lemming, &c.; game, but not abundantly; the sturgeon, salmon, trout, carp, pike, mackerel, and a variety of other fishes in the rivers; and the bee, whose honey and wax form valuable products of consumption and export.

The population of the country, amounting to 60,000,000, is composed of a vast variety of races, dif

across the interior, and forming the great water-shed | poppy, &c. The characteristic wild animals arewhich diverts the rivers to the Arctic Ocean on the one hand, and to the Caspian and Black Seas on the other. If we except the Ouralian Mountains on its eastern border, and a hilly tract in the Crimea, there is no portion of the country which rises more than 1100 feet above the sea, and that only near Valdai in the central plateau. The northern section, which sensibly declines,' says a native author, towards the White and Frozen Seas, is covered with vast forests, abounds in marshes and lakes, and is but little fit for cultiva-fering in language, religion, manners-from the rudest tion. The other, and more southerly portion of the plain, includes the whole district along the Wolga, as far as the sandy steppes or deserts between the Caspian and the Sea of Azov, and constitutes the finest part of Russia: generally, it has a fertile soil, the arable and pasture land preponderating over the woods and marshes. That part of the country which extends towards Voronej, Tambov, Penza, and Simbirsk, as far as the deserts, is remarkable for the superior quality of every kind of fruit and other produce. It has everywhere an excellent soil, consisting of black earth, strongly impregnated with saltpetre. But the tract which commences between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian, and extends near the shores of the latter, and between the Wolga and Oural, as far north as the Samara, is little better than a desert, being level, dry, high, barren, and full of salt lakes.'

The rock formations of Russia present much less variety than might be expected from the extent of the country, chiefly in consequence of the flat and unbroken manner in which they lie. The chief economic minerals are-gold, platina, silver, lead, and copper from the Oural; copper and tin in Finland; iron from the central elevation of Valdai, &c.; coal in Poland, Toula, and Ikatherinoslav, but of little importance; rock-salt and brine-springs in Poland, Taurida, Perm, and other places; lime, alabaster, gypsum, and amber.

The climate of Russia is said to be much colder than that of other European countries in the same latitude; and the farther we proceed eastward, the temperature becomes still lower, in consequence of the uncultivated state of the surface, distance from the tempering influences of the ocean, and the frequency of easterly and northerly winds from the icy regions of the Arctic Ocean. In the northern section the winter is severe, and lasts from eight to nine months; all the rivers and seas are frozen, and the ground deeply covered with snow: summer, on the other hand, is short and hot; and there is, generally speaking, neither spring nor autumn. In the central region winter is also severe, but shorter; there is something like spring and autumn, and summer is still warmer. In the south, winter continues only for about five months, freezing the rivers and shores; and summer is often fervid and oppressive. The provinces bordering on the Baltic have a wet and variable climate, and this feature extends to the elevated tract which borders the upper basin of the Wolga; but farther eastward, and in the extreme north and south, the atmosphere is clear and dry-a circumstance which materially modifies the effects of the winter's cold.

state of barbarism to the highest point of European civilisation. Laying aside minor distinctions, they may be classed under the following stocks:-The Sclavonic, including the Russians Proper, the Poles, Bulgarians, and Servians; the Finns of Finland, Lapland, and Esthonia; the Lettish tribes of the Baltic provinces ; the Toorkees of the Caucasus, Astrakhan, Kazan, the Crimea, &c.; the Deutsch or Germans in Riga, Revel, and St Petersburg; the Goths, including the Swedes of Finland; and in lesser numbers Danes, Jews, Greeks, French, and English. The settled inhabitants are ranked in four classes-nobles, clergy, citizens, and peasants; the peasants being either freemen with limited privileges, or serfs belonging to the soil, and transferable like any other species of property.

All forms of religious faith are tolerated; but that of the orthodox Greek Church prevails, and is adhered to by the Russians, Servians, Cossacks, &c. The Roman Catholic faith is professed by the Poles and Lithuanians; the Swedes, Danes, Finns, and most of the Germans are Lutherans; Calvinism reckons but a small number of Poles and Germans; Islamism is the creed of the Toorkee or Tartars; and the Jews observe the Mosaic ritual. Educationally, the country is in a very depressed state, if we take into account only the peasants and lower orders; but among the citizens and higher classes there is a more general dissemination of knowledge than is generally believed. According to an educational scheme drawn out in 1802, somewhat similar to that of Denmark, a certain number of universities, lyceums, and elementary schools were to be erected, upheld, and conducted under government; but only a few of these have as yet been established.

The industrial operations of the country are as yet conducted in a very primitive manner, and upon a limited scale, considering the vastitude of the natural resources. Agriculture is in its first stage, and yet, owing to the excellency of the soil and comparatively small home demand, large supplies are annually exported. Of late years, manufactures, under high protective duties, have risen to some consideration, and the country now possesses a number of establishments for the preparation of woollen goods, silk, cotton, linen, and metal wares. The chief seats of these are the governments of Moscow, Novgorod, Vladimir, Saratov, Toula, and St Petersburg. The Russians,' says Waterston, excel in the manufacture of leather; and from their advantages in respect to raw material, their canvas, strong linens, cordage, felt, mats, potash, soap, candles, caviar, and isinglas, are quite as good as those made elsewhere; but in all other branches their productions cannot compete with those of Western Europe, especially Britain, as to finish, durability, and cheapness; and their existence is therefore dependent upon a prohibitory system of export duties.'

The vegetable and animal productions present less variety than might be expected from a region lying between the 45th and 70th parallels. The most remarkable feature in the former is the vast expanse of forest growth, covering about two-fifths of the entire The government is an absolute hereditary monarchy; superficies. As already hinted, these are most exten- all power emanates from the czar, emperor, or autocrat, sive in the north and central regions, especially between whose authority is without limit or control. He is the the 55th and 60th parallels, where it has been said central point of the administration, the head of the that a squirrel might travel between St Petersburg and church as well as of the state, and to his decision, or Moscow without touching the ground. Among the cul- for his sanction, all important measures must be subtivated plants we may notice rye all over the country, mitted. His authority is delegated to certain boards, barley to 67° north, oats to 62° north, wheat in the fer- the members of which are of his own appointment; and tile tracts along the southern rivers, millet along the to these respectively are committed the ordering and Don, hemp and flax in the west and centre, tobacco in execution of all legislative, judicial, civil, religious, the Ukraine, cranberries in the marshes of the north, financial, and other affairs. Population, 60,362,250; fruit in the south-east, the vine in the Crimea and Cau- revenue, £16,380,000; debt, £76,800,000; army 500,000. casian provinces; and variously, potatoes, rape, rhubarb, | Capital, St Petersburg, with 476,000 inhabitants.

ENGLAND AND WALES.

ENGLAND and the principality of Wales, which we shall treat as one incorporated country under the former of these names, occupy the most southerly, and at the same time the largest and most fertile, portion of Great Britain an island, the position of which is at once favourable to commerce, to security, and to national independence. Placed in a medium latitude, it is further preserved by the surrounding ocean from those extremes of heat, and cold, and aridity, to which continental countries, both in higher and lower parallels, are frequently subjected. England, then, is bounded on the north by Scotland, from which it is chiefly separated by the Solway Firth and the Cheviot hills; on the east by the German Ocean; on the south by the English Channel; and on the west by St George's Channel and the Irish Sea. The space thus included is rather irregular in form, and lies between lat. 49° 57′ and 5.5° 45′ north, and between long. 5° 41′ west, and 1° 46' east. Measuring along the second meridian, from St Alban's Head on the south to Berwick on the north, its length is 362 miles; its breadth, from Land's End to North Foreland in Kent, 330 miles; from St David's Head in Pembroke to Lowestoft in Suffolk, 300; from Lancaster Bay to Bridlington Bay in Yorkshire, 110; and from the Solway Firth to Tynemouth, only 64 miles. Its area is estimated at 57,812 square miles, or nearly 37,000,000 acres, of which 5,200,000 belong to Wales.

SUPERFICIAL FEATURES.

The superficial features of England, though not devoid of variety and picturesque beauty, are, upon the whole, less diversified than those of Scotland and Ireland. Generally speaking, its western side-from Cumberland and Westmoreland, southwards through Wales, into Devon and Cornwall-is hilly or mountainous; while the eastern side, sloping from these heights down to the German Ocean (as evidenced by the direction of the principal rivers), is of an undulating, flat, and sometimes monotonous character. The chief mountain ranges which give character to the country have been classed under three heads:-1. The Devonian Rang stretching from Gloucester, through No. 64.

! Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, and terminating in the promontory of the Land's End-the highest point of which is Cawsand Beacon in Devon, 1792 feet; 2. The Cambrian Range, extending from the Bristol Channel, through Wales, the culminating point of which is Snowdon, 3571 feet; 3. The Northern or Cumbrian Range, stretching from Derbyshire, through Cumberland, and passing into Scotland, whose loftiest peak is Skafell in Cumberland, 3166 feet. In the central and eastern parts of the country (south of Yorkshire) there are a few ill-defined ranges of swelling eminences; but none which exceed 1020 feet. The chalk-hills or Downs of southern England are inconsiderable eminences, radiating in different directions from the tableland of Salisbury Plain in Hampshire, the highest point of which is only 1001 feet. Besides Snowdon and Skafell, the principal heights in England are David (3427 feet), and Llewellan (3469), both in Wales; Skeddaw (3022), and Saddleback (2787), in Cumberland; and Helvellyn (3055), in Westmoreland.

In contradistinction to these mountain-ranges are the moors, vales, marshes, and other level tracts, which constitute no inconsiderable portion of the surface. The principal moorlands are those of Northumberland, extensive, open, solitary wastes, producing little except heath, at an elevation of from 500 to 1000 feet above the sea; the moors of Durham, in the Lead-Mines district; those of Cumberland and Westmoreland, inseparably blended with the mountains of those counties; those of Yorkshire, forming a wide elevated tract, ungenial in soil and climate; those of Staffordshire, at an elevation between 500 and 1154 feet; Dartmoor in Devonshire, covering upwards of 240,000 acres, at a mean elevation of 1700 feet, and of extreme ruggedness; Exmoor, partly in Devon, and partly in Somerset, consisting of 20,000 acres, for the most part bleak, waste, and irreclaimable; and the heathy uplands of Surrey, Hunts, and Dorset.

The vales or dales, traversed generally by the rivers, form an important feature in the geography of England; their verdure, shelter, and fertility being unsurpassed by any other portion of Europe. The principal are the Vale of York, about 60 miles in length, and of variable breadth, occupying an area of 640,000 acres; Holderness, lying between the Humber and the sea, in the south-eastern part of Yorkshire, 270,000 acres; the vale in which Carlisle is situated, 300,000 acres; the Vale of the Severn, extending through Gloucester and Worcester for nearly 40 miles; the Vale of Exeter, 128,000 acres; the Vale of Taunton, 64,000; the Wealds of Southern England; and the minor dales of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees. The low marshy district called the Fens, lying around the Wash, principally in Cambridge and Lincoln, but partly also in Northampton, Norfolk, Suffolk, &c. forms a level tract of not less than 500,000 acres-apparently of recent elevation above the waters of the German Ocean. For the last two centuries much engineering skill and capital have been expended on the drainage and reclaiming of these fens, and the result has been the acquirement of extensive tracts of the richest and most fertile alluvium. Of the surface thus described, probably not above one-ninth (Wales being included) is unsusceptible of tillage, or at least of profitable improvement.

and south direction, so that a geological map exhibits them (not taking minor interruptions into account) like so many longitudinal bands overlapping each other, from the slates of Cornwall and Wales, to the chalks and tertiary clays of Kent and Middlesex. These formations display most of the subordinate groups of the geologist (see No. 2), with all their characteristic animal and vegetable remains in great perfection.

HYDROGRAPHY, &c.

The gulfs, bays, straits, and other arms and indentations of the oceans which surround England are, with one or two exceptions, of limited dimensions. On the east coast are the estuary of the Humber, receiving the waters of several rivers; the Wash, a large shallow inlet full of sandbanks and mud-shoals; Harwich HarThus, in Cornwall and Devon eminences of granite, bour; Blackwater Bay; and the estuary of the Thames, serpentine, and porphyry occur, while the slopes rest- also incumbered with numerous intricate shoals and ing on them are composed of different kinds of slate. sandbanks. On the south are the irregular expanse The granite of this district is extensively used for pav. formed by the Solent and Spithead roads, and Southing in London, though considered less hard and durable ampton water, the last of which runs inland for ten or than that brought from Scotland. The Welsh moun- twelve miles, and is navigable to its extremity; Plytains are composed chiefly of varieties of slate, with mouth Sound, celebrated for the stupendous breakwater some intermixture of volcanic rocks, as basalt and which protects its water from the swell of the Atlantic; trap; while a rich coal-field, 100 miles in length, and Falmouth Harbour, and Mounts Bay, so called from from five to ten in breadth, rests upon their southern St Michael's Mount, a curious insulated rock a little verge, extending from Glamorgan into Pembrokeshire, off the mainland. On the west are-Barnstaple Bay; being the largest coal-field in Great Britain. The Bristol Channel, a deep gulf 25 miles wide at its northern range of mountains is also chiefly composed entrance, and about 8 where it joins the estuary of of slate rocks, there being only one mountain of granite the Severn; the bays of Swansea and Caermarthen ; near Shap in Westmoreland. Between these ranges of Milford Haven, one of the safest and most capacious mountains, and a line drawn from Exmouth, through harbours of England; St Bride's Bay; the large bays of Bath, Gloucester, Leicester, Nottingham, and Tadcaster, Cardigan and Caernarvon; the estuaries of the Dee, to Stockton-upon-Tees, the surface is composed of the Mersey, and Ribble; and Morecambe Bay, a large lower secondary strata, including rich beds of coal, the inlet, so shallow that proposals were at one time made existence of which in this situation is mainly what has to reclaim it from the sea. The straits are those of enabled England to become the first manufacturing Dover, 21 miles across, and about 17 fathoms at its country in the world. The eastern parts of the coun- deepest part, supposed by geologists to be of recent ties of Durham and Northumberland, from the Tees excavation-England before that event having been northward to Berwick, form a peculiarly valuable coal-attached to the main continent; and the Menai Strait, field, of numerous beds, from which the metropolis and separating the island of Anglesea from the mainland other cities in the east of England and elsewhere are of Wales, about 14 miles in length, and varying from supplied with this important mineral. Another coal-2 miles to 200 yards across. This strait is crossed by field of great value, and that upon which the manufac- a magnificent suspension-bridge, erected by Telford in tures of Manchester depend, extends northwards from 1826; and is now in course of being spanned by a susMacclesfield to Oldham, and thence westwards to pension railway-tube or tunnel of still more gigantic Prescot near Liverpool. A coal-field near Wolver-proportions and curious construction. hampton, in Staffordshire, is the most valuable in the centre of England: upon it depend the extensive metallic manufactures of Birmingham.

|

The principal capes are Flamborough Head, Spurn Head, North Foreland, and South Foreland on the east; Dungeness, Beachy Head, St Alban's Head, Portland Point, Start Point, Bolt Head, and Lizard Point on the south; Land's End, Hartland Point, St Goven's Head, St David's Head, Stumble Head, Holyhead, Ormes Head, and St Bee's Head on the west; and Air Point in the Isle of Man. All of those mentioned on the east and south, and the two last on the west, are the sites of lighthouses, indispensable to the safety of the immense coasting trade of the country.

To the east of the line drawn from Exmouth to Bath, and thence by Gloucester, Leicester, and Tadcaster, to Stockton-upon-Tees, we find the upper rocks of the secondary formation, presenting in succession red sandstone and red marl, lias limestone and clay, oolitic limestone, green sand with clay, and finally chalk. Connected with the red marl, vast masses of rock-salt are found; these are extensively dug in Cheshire and Worcestershire for domestic use. Lias, which extends The islands geographically connected with England from Lyme in Dorsetshire to Whitby in Yorkshire, is are, with one or two exceptions, small and unimportant. remarkable for the remains which it presents of the Off the east coast are Holy Isle or Lindisfarne, conlarge saurian reptiles. Beds of oolitic limestone cover taining the remains of an abbey and castle; the Farns, the southern part of Gloucestershire, and a great part a dangerous group of small rocky islets; Foulness and of Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire, Rutlandshire, and Sheerness at the entrance of the Thames; and the Isle the eastern side of Lincolnshire. The chalk exists of Thanet, formed by two branches of the small river everywhere to the south-east of a line commencing near Stour. Off the south coast-the large, beautiful, and Dorchester, on the south coast, and passing through salubrious Isle of Wight, sometimes called The GarWilts, Berks, Norfolk, and so on to Flamborough Head den of England;' Purbeck and Portland Islands, noted -excepting in Sussex and Kent, where it has been for their quarries; the Eddystone rock, with its celecarried off by denudation, exposing a peculiar formation brated lighthouse; and the Scilly Islands-a group called the wealden, and in the bed of the Thames near consisting of seventeen rocky islets, thirty miles westLondon, and one or two other places, where tertiary south-west from the Land's End. Off the west coast beds of clay occur. To sum up the economic mineral-the small islands of Lundy, Skomer, Bardsey, Holyproduce of England consists chiefly of granite, roofing-head, and the Skerries; the large island of Anglesea; slate, limestone, some marble, coal, both bituminous and the Isle of Man, which, legislatively and judicially, and anthracite, building-stones of various kinds, rock-forms a sort of independent territory. (For Jersey, salt, alum, potters' clay, fullers' earth, and siliceous Guernsey, &c. see No. 63, p. 193.) sands; the metallic of copper, tin, lead, silver, zinc, manganese, iron, antimony, arsenic, and plumbago. The main depositories of the metals are the hills of Cornwall, Devon, Wales, and Cumberland. Iron, as a clay carbonate, is chiefly obtained from the shales of the coal-measures. The principal coal-fields are those of Durham and Northumberland, Lancaster, Stafford, and South Wales. Rock-salt and brine springs are found only in Cheshire and Worcester; and plumbago almost solely in Borrowdale, Cumberland.

The lakes of England are few, and of very tiny dimensions; the largest scarcely covering an area of four square miles; but the beauty of their associated scenery has conferred on them an almost universal reputation. We refer to the lakes of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and the north of Lancashire; the largest of which are Winandermere, Ulleswater, Thirlmere, Derwentwater, Bassenthwaite, Buttermere, and Crumnockwater. These lie amid the vales and recesses of the Cumbrian range; and it is the combination of Alpine wildness and gran