THE most superficial survey of the earth shows its |
human inhabitants to be greatly diversified in exter-
nal qualities-as complexion, stature, the form of the
head, and the cast of the features. It also exhibits
these diversities as all more or less localised, whence
of course the inference is drawn, that they attach to
races or nations, with whom they form permanent cha-
racteristics. Modern times saw the rise of a science,
which, under the name of the Physical History of Man,
observed these external qualities as zoological facts-
facts both in themselves interesting, and of some value
as means of determining certain points in the early
history of the race. Latterly, the various languages of
mankind have been added to the subjects embraced by
the science; and as these are not to be comprehended
under the term physical, a new name has become
necessary, and that of Ethnology, as implying simply
the science of national distinctions, has been adopted
by many. It appears that we are now to look to this
science not merely for a view of the natural history of
man, and of the sundry questions connected therewith,
but for light regarding that obscure but interesting
portion of his social history which preceded the use of
writing. As yet, however, Ethnology is only in its
infancy, and for much which it advances, we are to
expect that corrections or modifications will come ere
many years are passed.

PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF MANKIND.

The observations of naturalists have shown that, while it is true that a certain species of animals, remaining under certain conditions, exhibits uniformity of characters from one generation to another, a change of conditions will, in the course of generations, produce a corresponding change in the organic characters of the species, and even in its mental habitudes. Thus, for example, while the wolf is everywhere the same animal, because everywhere passing a wild life in desert places, the dog, distributed over the whole civilised world, and subjected to a great variety of conditions, has passed into numberless varieties of form, colour, and disposition. It appears, however, that these results are only efforts of nature to accommodate herself to circumstances, for the purpose of maintaining the existence of the species under the new conditions, and that there are limits beyond which change cannot be carried; so that, after all, a particular type is constantly preserved, towards which the animals would return if the original conditions were restored. Thus the domesticated pig of Europe, allowed to run wild in America, has recovered the tusks and other external features of the wild boar -that original state of the species from which domesNo. 51.

tication had brought it. On such grounds it is that naturalists hold the distinction and perseverance of species as facts in nature. It has been found, indeed, that species nearly allied, as the horse and ass, will produce an offspring in which the parental qualities are associated or blended; but such hybrids have never been known to continue a race manifesting this union of qualities, and accordingly they in noway affect the conclusion, that specific character is a determinate thing in nature, only liable to temporary modifications.

Under the light thus derived from the study of the lower animals, it is now generally held that we are to regard mankind as of one species-a species passing into an unusual number of varieties in aspect and mental character, only because they are more widely diffused than any other animated beings over the face of the earth, and thereby exposed to an unusual variety of conditions, and called to exercise their mental qualities in an unequalled variety of ways. In the group of human beings commonly called a nation, there is always some set of characteristics more or less peculiar, and by which it can be distinguished from all others; though even in this association, especially if civilisation have made any considerable way, we shall find great differences in complexion, form, and mental character. Nations, again, are generally capable of being grouped under some denomination which expresses a more comprehensive set of characters, and marks an affinity of a wider kind. We may go on classifying in this manner, by more and more comprehensive characters, until we arrive at a small number of leading varieties, in which nothing remains in common but the general forms and powers of the human organisation. It is difficult, in the present state of the science, to say how many such varieties there are; but it may be convenient to describe the five into which the venerable Blumenbach has divided mankind.

Caucasian (Indo-European and Syro-Arabian) Race. The many nations extending from India westward through Southern Asia into Europe and Northern Africa, and which recent times have seen sending out offshoots into the western continent, are comprehensively grouped by Blumenbach and Cuvier under the term Caucasian, because tradition seemed to point to the mountains between the Caspian and the Black Sea as the region where the race had originated. The propriety of the designation is denied by many, and it is now believed that two distinct varieties of mankind are grouped under it. These Dr Prichard describes as the Indo-European or Arian race-comprehending the Hindoos, Persians, Affghans, and Armenians, besides the

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ancient language of the Persians, and the Sanscrit, the ancient language of the Hindoos, have an affinity which sufficiently proves the common origin of the two nations. The Indians are a dusky people, the general complexion being described as of a coffee-colour; but while the people of the high grounds are comparatively white, many of those of the plains, and especially the classes engaged in out-door labour, are as dark as Negroes. In general they are a feeble and gentle people; but their having attained to civilised institutions at an early period, and their ancient distinction in the sciences, particularly mathematics, are circumstances which manifest no mean intellectual character.

great bulk of the European nations-and the Syro- | constituting the Hindoos and Persians. The Zend, the Arabian or Semitic race, comprising the Syrian and Arabian nations. Both groups have the general characteristic of a fair complexion (with exceptions to be afterwards noticed); and this seems to justify their being considered as one race; but, on the other hand, the languages are now believed to have no sort of true affinity-a test which modern ethnographers regard as more conclusive. It will nevertheless be convenient to speak of all these nations Ethnographers consider it as established that the under the old term Cauca- principal European nations are colonies from Asia, and sian, which has now been descendants of the same people with the Hindoos and too extensively recognised Persians. It is solely to a study of the languages that to be readily displaced. we are indebted for this conclusion. According to Dr The Syro-Arabian group Prichard, If we are to enumerate the different nahave been found from the earliest times of which we tions who are to be considered as ramifications of the have any record, in the countries from which their gene- Indo-European stock, viewing those as the most ancient ral appellation is taken. (They are also called Semitic which are farthest removed from the centre, or from nations, as supposed to have descended from Shem, one the path of migration, we must begin with the Celtic of the sons of Noah.) Distinguished from all the rest nations in the west of Europe, including the two of mankind by their language, they also stand out in branches which are represented in modern times, one history as a people of most remarkable characters, and by the Irish, Scots, and Manx, and the other by the particularly for their exalted notion of an unseen but Welsh and Armoricans, or Bretons. Next to them, in almighty God, the creator of the world. In this group we the north of Europe, is the Germanic family. It confind the founders of the great empire which existed for sists, according to the conclusions of the latest and so many ages on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates; most accurate philologers, of two principal divisions: the Phoenicians, who seem to have been the first com- of the Northmen, ancestors of the Icelanders, Normercial people of the earth; the Hebrews, whose his-wegians, and Swedes and Danes; and secondly, of tory is that of the faith recorded in the sacred Scriptures; and the Arabians, among whom sprung up the Mohammedan religion. The Abyssinians probably belong to this race, and the ancient Egyptians are generally classed with it, though Dr Prichard is of opinion that these were in the main an Ethiopian or Negro people. Dr Larrey, the eminent French surgeon, was of opinion that the Arabs furnish the most perfect form of the human head-the most perfect development of all the internal organs, as well as of those which belong to the senses.' Spare but active persons, skins of a light brown, sallowed sometimes by unusual exposure, high foreheads, large dark eyes, oval features, with aquiline noses and small thin-lipped mouths, form the personal characteristics of the Arabs. They have occupied the confines of the present Arabia from time immemorial, and their natural habits have ever been pastoral and migratory. The Bedouin Arabs claim descent from Ishmael; and however this may be, it is plain, from physical characteristics alone, that they are a cognate race with the Jews. The latter were originally derived from the Chaldeans, an elder branch of the Arab stock settled in Babylonia, and they were a pastoral and wandering people like their neighbours, until they settled in the cities of Palestine. A body of Canaanite Arabs, expelled by the Jews under Joshua, are understood to have settled in Africa, and become the nation of the Mauri or Moors. Governed by Mohammed and his successors, the Arab race rose to high consequence, and, under the name of Saracens, made great conquests of territory in Asia Minor, Africa, and in Spain. They were afterwards deprived of superiority in some of these countries, but left extensive tribes in the African continent and Asia Minor. The Berbers (or Libyans) are a race who seem of Arab descent, but who probably settled in Africa at a far distant date. They resemble the Arabs in person, but are more darkened in complexion. Under the name of Tuariks, they range both to the north and south of Mount Atlas. They are wilder in habits than the Arabs, but may be spoken of as the same race, and with the same capabilities.

The Indo-European group is described by Dr Prichard as appearing in the earliest ages on the high grounds between the sources of the Indus and Oxus, whence they went off in two great branches, ultimately

the proper Teutonic stock in its three subdivisions, which are the Saxon or Western German, the Suevians or High German, and the Gothic or Eastern clan. The next branch of the Indo-European stock are tribes who speak the dialects of the Old Prussian or Pruthenian language. These dialects are the Lettish, Lithuanian, and the Proper Pruthenian, which, of all the languages of Europe, bear by far the nearest resemblance to the original Sanscrit. The people who spoke these dialects had a peculiar mythology, and an ancient and very powerful hierarchy, as famous in the north as were those of the Brahmins and the Druids in the east and west. The Slavic or Sclavonic race is a fourth IndoEuropean family: its two great branches are the Western or Proper Slavic, including the Poles, Bohemians, Obotrites, and the tribes near the Baltic; secondly, the Eastern branch, comprehending the Russians, the Servians, and other tribes nearly related to them.' Dr Prichard adds, that the Italian nations, excepting only the Tuscans, form collectively another and an early branch of the same stock, all their various languages, the Oscan, Latin, Sicilian, &c. being but variations of one speech. Finally, he enumerates the Albanians, Illyrians, and the more celebrated Hellenic or Greek race. It would,' he says, ' be an interesting question, if there were any data likely to facilitate its discussion, whether the Arian [Indo-European] nations found on their arrival in Europe the different countries already occupied by previous inhabitants, or vacant, and affording them a peaceful and undisturbed admission. The former hypothesis appears most probable, since we know that the most remote parts whither these nations ultimately arrived were previously inhabited. The Euskaldunes appear already to have possessed Spain before the arrival of the Celtic tribes in that country.... In the north of Europe the German nations, or rather the Northmen, found the countries on the Baltic coast already occupied by Jotuns, nations of the Finnish or Ugrian race; a people, like themselves, of Eastern origin, but emigrants of an earlier age, and from a different part of Asia. From the appearance, moreover, of the remains of an earlier language in the Celtic, it may be surinised that the Celts, whose fate it afterwards was to be dispossessed of the greater part of their territory, were originally aggressors upon some still earlier people.

The Germanic family prevails, as has been said, over

a great part of Central and Northern Europe, filling | tively heavy, massive temperament of the pure GerGermany and Scandinavia, and partly also Russia mans. We may judge so from looking at the character and Poland. The decline of the Roman power brought of the unmixed Germanic families. The Dutch, for out the Germanic tribes from their northern settle- example, would evidently have been an improved race ments, and, under various names, they intruded into had their gravity of character been lightened by a little the south-west of Europe. They likewise pushed them- infusion of Celtic mercurialism. The Belgians have a selves in powerful masses towards the west, and colo- pretty equal share of Celtic and Germanic blood in nised the principal parts of the isle of Britain. From their veins; and consequently, while they display the them came the chief elements of the dialects spoken in industrial virtues of the latter race, they also show no Holland, Denmark, and England. Robust forms, light slight admixture of Celtic vivacity. hair, blue eyes, florid complexions, and large broadfronted heads, constitute the chief physical characteristics of the pure Germanic family; while, morally and intellectually, they stand pre-eminent above all the other tribes of mankind. They are conspicuous, in particular, for what may be called the industrial virtues, exhibiting a degree of indomitable perseverance in all improving pursuits, which has rendered them the great inventors of the human race. The admixture of German and Tartar blood in the north-eastern nations of Europe, has given to these darker hair and complexions than the preceding section, and has also lessened their propensity to intellectual cultivation. The effects of the Tartar conquest of Russia in the twelfth century by Ghenghis Khan, whose successors held the country for 200 years, will probably be observable in the career of this people for ages yet to come.

The Celtic family formed extensive settlements at a very early period in Western Europe. The whole, it may be said, of Italy, Spain, France (called Gallia Celtica), and Britain, was peopled by them. The successive commingling of races, caused by incursions of the Greeks, Romans, and Germans, did much to obliterate the traces of this variety in its pure state; yet the race, language, and name, still remain in their primitive condition on the outskirts of the original Celtic dominions. These pure Celts show us what the physical characteristics of their ancestors were. Their frames are athletic, spare, and wiry; their foreheads narrow, and the head itself elongated; the nose and mouth large, and the cheek-bones high; in all, their features are rather harsh. In character they are hot and fiery, but generous and brave; and they are remarkably patient of fatigue. Intellectually considered, they are acute and ingenious in the highest degree, but are deficient in that breadth and solidity of understanding which distinguishes the Germanic family.

There may appear some fancifulness in this mode of analysis, but we believe that an accurate examination of the proportions in which the Germanic and Celtic blood are mingled in all the countries of Europe, would fully bear out the views now taken. In Italy, Spain, and Portugal, infusions of Germanic blood took place, but to a comparatively slight extent. The aboriginal Celts of Spain were extensively mingled with Roman immigrants; and it may be said that at this day Romanised Celts, with a sprinkling of Gothic (Germanic) and Saracenic blood in their veins, form the existing population. In them, the faults of the Roman character, as well as its haughty virtues, are even yet distinctly traceable. Romanised Celts constitute the basis also of the Portuguese and Italian nations, and the preceding remark applies to their character as much as to that of the Spaniards. The languages of the three countries bear out these observations.

It has been remarked that the Semitic nations are distinguished from the rest of this group by their languages. In using language as a means of ascertaining the affinity of nations, philologers attach less consequence to a community of words, though this is not overlooked by them, than to a community of grammatical forms. It is remarked that a similar construction prevails through whole classes of languages which have few words in common, though they appear to have originally had more.' The words, it appears, change and perish, but the grammatical structure is permanent. It is also remarked that there is a cognate character in words themselves, which sometimes pervades the entire vocabulary of a whole family of languages, the words being formed in the same manner, and according to the same artificial rule.* Common words, to be of any service in the inquiry, should be those which refer to the most simple and domestic things, and the most natural and ordinary acts, as those denoting father, mother, brother, the various parts of the body, the most conspicuous objects of external nature, as the heavenly bodies, the domestic animals, &c.; also the first few numerals, and the terms for such acts as eating, drinking, sleeping. Other words, it will readily be apprehended, are more apt to have passed from one people to another, in the course of commerce or other intercourse. Of these, however, it may be said that they are indestructible possessions of all nations. Tribes and families separated from each other have been known to have preserved such similar words for thousands of years, in a degree of purity that admitted of an easy recognition of this sign of a common origin.'

The present population of France partakes largely of the Celtic blood, notwithstanding various invasions of the Germanic tribes, from one of which, the Franks, came the modern name of the country. From the Celts, the French people derive their proverbial vivacity of temper, their quickness of perception, their dashing bravery, and, most probably, their undeniable inconstancy and flightiness of disposition. Britain, again, has retained comparatively slight traces of her early Celtic inhabitants, though the language is conspicuous in a vast number of the names of places throughout the island. A branch of the Germans had visited England even before the invasion of the Romans; and after the latter came Dane, and Saxon, and Norman, in such numbers, that the pure aboriginal Upon these principles, it has been settled that the stock were left only in the Highlands of Scotland, and Sanscrit, the ancient written language of India, besides partly in Wales. The Scottish Lowlands had early being in strong affinity to the Zend, or ancient lanbeen colonised by people of Germanic origin; and sub-guage of Persia, forms as it were the type of all the sequent intermixtures with the southern inhabitants of the island in time gave the population still more of the Germanic character. In this manner was formed the root of the existing British nation, one of the most remarkable on the face of the earth. Inferior to none of the Caucasian families in intellectual endowments, and possessed of indomitable courage and unbounded enterprise, it has scattered its colonies over a large portion of the globe, giving to new regions its language, its genius, and its arts. Much of the excellence that befongs to the British character certainly arose from the preponderating infusion of Germanic blood. But the sprinkling left of Celtic blood seems to have had its use also, in giving a share of vivacity to the compara

languages of Europe, thus confirming the fact of all these nations being from one original. Old, however, as the Sanscrit is, it is only the last refined form of a language which had long existed in a ruder state. It is likewise on the same grounds established that the Syro-Arabian family of languages is entirely distinct from the Indo-European; for which reason, those who look most to language as evidence on ethnological subjects, set down the Semitic nations as forming an independent variety of mankind. The Chaldee, Arabic, and Hebrew are the chief languages of this family. The last-which appears to have been also the language * Report on Ethnology to the British Association. By James Cowles Prichard, M.D., F.R.S. 1847.

colonies were for ages supplied with slaves. In some | height, form the chief physical characteristics of this districts are found the pure Negroes, an essentially race. In their mental character,' says Professor Morsimple and inoffensive people, of whom no description ton, by whom they have been thoroughly studied, the is necessary. Other large tracts are occupied by nations Americans are averse to cultivation, and slow in acquirconsiderably above those in character and in their ing knowledge; restless, social state. We allude to the warlike tribes of the revengeful, fond of war, Fulahs, the Mandingoes, the Felatahs, and others, and wholly destitute of among whom a civilisation has been in progress for maritime adventure.' The many centuries in connection with the propagation of same writer divides the the Mohammedan religion. For an example of the Americans into two great characters of these so far advanced nations, M. Gol- classes, one of which (Tolberry describes the Fulahs as fine men, robust and tecans) embraces certain courageous. They have a strong mind, and are myste- semi- civilised nationsrious and prudent; they understand commerce. Their as the Mexicans, Peruwomen are handsome and sprightly. The colour is a vians, and Bogotese; while kind of reddish black; their countenances are regular, the other includes all the and their hair is longer and not so woolly as that of hunting tribes of North the common Negroes. The Mandingo merchants are America, the Brazilians, well known for their activity and intelligence. We the Patagonians, the Fuecan all sympathise in the surprise of Mr Park on find-gians, and other minor tribes, none of whom have ing a city of 30,000 inhabitants (Sego), with many of the usual features of civilisation in this portion of the earth.

exhibited the same capacities for cultivation as the first-mentioned nations. The Americans differ much in colour of skin and stature. Some of them are It is now understood that, as we traverse the African not brown, but of a perfect copper tint. The Patacontinent northwards, we pass through nations in whom gonians are of almost gigantic size, while the Fuethe Negro type becomes less and less conspicuous, as if gians are very short in stature. Yet there are chait were shading off towards the characters of the Se-racters common to all, which have led accurate inmitic race. "This gradual change,' says Dr Prichard, quirers to set them down as being throughout one 'is not the result of the intermixture of races on the and the same people. Their languages have peculiaconfines of regions of old allotted to either separately. rities of construction found to be universal among The intermediate tribes are not Mulattoes, or at all them, from Cape Horn to the far north. By those resembling Mulattoes: they have each their distin- who, like Cuvier, have not viewed the Americans as guishing features, which, besides their distinct lan- an indigenous race, the mode in which the New World guages, mark them out as races separate and peculiar, was peopled has been curiously inquired into, and it and not less distinct from Negroes than white races has been conjectured that they either came by Behring's themselves. These observations are the results of re- Straits from Asia, or that some small party, in ages cent inquiries made on the spot by persons well skilled long past, was wafted accidentally across the seas to in natural history and comparative anatomy and phy- these vast shores. Such an occurrence as the latter siology, and aware of the important bearing of such has been proved to be not impossible, to say the least inquiries on the physical history of the human species.' of it. But assuredly the weight of evidence is in favour Thus in the great known district adjoining to the Red of the opinion that the Americans are not a casual Sea, we pass through the Gallas, Abyssinians, and offshoot from some other human family, but a people Nubians, amongst whom we find these transitions more so far indigenous at least, and primitive, as to be deor less marked. The Berberines of Nubia are said by rived from a common root, endowed with specific and Dr Prichard to represent very clearly the ancient unique physical characters. The American race is people of Egypt. It appears, on the whole, that there obviously tending to extinction. are as great varieties of national appearances in Africa as in any part of the earth of equal extent and diversity of surface, and that the sole ground on which their distinction from the other races can be effectually maintained, is the peculiar character of their languages.

The African race are generally admitted to manifest an inferior intellect to the various tribes of Caucasians. They have never invented an alphabet, and their religious ideas are of a mean character. Yet it fully appears that various portions of this race have made a certain way in the arts of life and in a social polity, while we all know that individuals, introduced among a civilised people, and allowed to partake of education, have manifested very considerable talents. It must also be remembered that there are great appearances as if some offshoot of the Negro race were at least concerned in the origination of that first of all recorded civilisations, that of Egypt.

American Race.

The AMERICAN variety of mankind occupy well-defined territorial limits. They were originally spread over nearly the whole of the Americas, south of the 60th degree of north latitude, though their numbers are now thinned, and their territorial possessions curtailed, by the colonial incursions of the Caucasians. A reddish-brown complexion, long black lank hair, deficient beard, eyes black and deep set, receding brow (sometimes from artificial compression), high cheekbones, prominent aquiline nose, small skull, with the apex high and the back part flat, large mouth and tumid lips, with fine symmetrical frames of middle

Malay Race.

The MALAY variety of mankind are characterised by tawny or dark-brown skins, coarse black hair, large mouth, short broad noses, seeming as if broken at the root, flat expanded faces, with projecting upper jaws, and salient teeth. The skull in this race is high, and squared or rounded, and the forehead low and broad. The moral character of the Malays, generally speaking, is of an inferior order. They are a race differing much in some respects from the Negro and Red

Indian, being of peculiarly active temperaments, and fond of maritime enterprise. They exhibit considerable intellectual capacity, and are an ingenious people. Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Philippine Islands, New Zealand, part of Madagascar, and various Polynesian islands, are inhabited by this variety of men. It is extremely probable, from the fact of their being found in islands surrounded by others in the hands of the Ethiopic race, that the Malays have pushed out the less active variety from these isles, and, in short, annihilated them. It is but too likely, moreover, that the Malays will in turn suffer extinction at the hands of a superior variety, or a variety rendered superior by civilisation, if not naturally so.