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exist, and there are, moreover, cross relations which it is impossible to represent by such a diagram; but the reader may gather from it some idea of the nature of the relations, and how impossible it is to follow them in a continuous description of the animal kingdom.

Obviously, if a writer were to pursue any one of the lines indicated, describing in order the animals which successively come under his notice on that line, he would be led further and further from the other lines, and he must pursue his course until he has arrived at the highest animal of the branch which he has been ascending; and then, like an Alpine traveller who has gained the summit of a peak, he will have to look around at similar elevations, between which and his own position there is no stepping-stone. Thus he must, of necessity, retrace his steps to the lower level, from which another ascending path takes its rise.

Another course, the one we have adopted, is to break off whenever a gap in the series occurs, and look around to see that we are not leaving behind us any group of animals of a similar or lower grade of structure, and if we are in danger of doing so, to return at once to the description of the neglected group. We are the more reconciled to this method of procedure, because the relations of the classes to one another are so far from being determined, that each independent author has a different arrangement.

It will be seen by the diagram that, while the classes Coelenterata, Echinodermata, Annelida, and Myriapoda seem to follow one another in a natural succession, leading up to the Insectathat order which, of all others in the articulate sub-kingdom, is perhaps the highest and most wonderfully constituted-the Rotatoria seem to start in a rather loose relationship with the Protozoa, and to lead up towards the Crustacea, a class which, as represented by its higher orders, is almost as complicated in structure as the Insecta, but whose lower orders are very much less organised. It would seem also as though the great subkingdom of the Mollusca is connected to the Articulates through their lowest class, the Polyzoa, and the class which we now have to describe.

The Rotatoria were first classed with the Infusoria by Ehrenberg. This classification was not to be wondered at, as all the rotary animals are microscopic, and they are obtained from infusions of vegetable or animal substances in water. Their outward appearance is also not unlike the higher orders of the Protozoa, and they move about by the same means as many of these do that is, by means of the vibrations of closely-set, fine, short, delicate hairs, called cilia. These cilia are so named from the Latin cilium, "an eye-lash." As these are the very minute organs of animals of less thanth of an inch in length, it may be well conceived that the name ciiia has relation to the form, and not to the size of the organs. The cilia in the Rotatoria, instead of being scattered all over the surface of the animal, as in Paramecium (a Protozoon), or in the Turbellaria, are confined to flat, convex lobes, situated round or near the mouth, whose edges they fringe. When the animal fixes itself, the motion of these lashes brings food to its mouth by causing currents of water to pass towards it; and when it relaxes its hold, then the same motion causes it to progress through the water much in the same way as a screw-steamer is propelled. Some of these animals have the lobes all united into one circular disc, and as the motion of the cilia is so ordered as to cause the appearance of a number of successive waves, following one another round and round the circle, it was once thought that the disc was a kind of cogged wheel whirling rapidly about a fixed axle. Hence the name Rotifera, or wheel-bearing animals, was given to them. If this had been the right explanation of the motion, it would have furnished an instance of a locomotive apparatus met with nowhere else in the whole animal kingdom. A little reflection concerning this contrivance led some naturalists to doubt whether it really existed. Of course it is essential to the mechanical device which we call a wheel that it should be entirely disconnected with the axle upon which it plays, otherwise it could not revolve; and yet it is essential that all animal structures, especially to those employed in locomotive actions, that there should be an organic communication between them and the organs of nutrition, by means of which liquids can be sent to supply the waste caused by vital actions. This liquid must also be sent in such a way as not to be lost or wasted in the transit. It would seem, then, that the mechanism of the wheel is incon

sistent with animal organism. This consideration led to a fresh study of the so-called wheel-animalcules. It is almost needless to remark that the separate cilia were too small for their motions to be distinctly traced, otherwise the mistake could never have occurred. It is now supposed that the successive action of the cilia gives rise to an optical illusion, by which the appearance of rotation is maintained, while the organ on which the cilia is situated remains stationary. This supposition is rendered almost a certainty by observing the same motion in those nearly-allied creatures, members of the same class, whose discs are not circular, but divided into lobes. In these species it could be seen that the lobes did not participate in the revolutions. The way in which this optical illusion is effected will be best seen by reference to the illustration (Fig. VII.). From this it may be seen that if the cilia are deflected from the perpendicular only in one direction, and that a number of these act together, so as to cross one another while the down-stroke is given, it will give rise to a number of dark points where the crossing occurs, which points, by the successive action of each cilium in the series, will seem to pass rapidly round the disc, while, since each returns to its erect position separately and slowly, the eye cannot trace their motion. This method of explanation is rendered more probable by the fact that these aquatic creatures are usually examined under the microscope by means of transmitted light, and hence anything which cuts off the rays of light at a particular point will catch the eye and be followed by it.

These cilia are found so very generally throughout the range of the animal series-they are placed on such different parts of animals, and applied to such different purposes-that it is as well to give some little time to the consideration of them. We have already had occasion to mention them as covering the body of some Infusoria, and being applied to locomotion. They are also found on the inner (as well as the outer) wall of the Cœlenterata, and there cause a circulation of the fluid in the stomach. They are set on the combs of the Ctenophora, or bands on the larvæ of the Echinodermata, and in these situations are swimming organs. We mentioned them also as set on the tufts of vessels called gills in the Annelids, and we shall find them again on the plate-like gills of Lamellibranchiata, and in these positions they cause a change in the external water, and so subserve the function of respiration. In the human subject they cover the membrane of the nasal chambers, the trachea, and the tubes leading to the lungs, and are continually employed to bring up the mucous which would else choke the passages. In all these cases, and in a thousand more which might be mentioned, their action, though applied to different purposes, is essentially the same. Their motion always creates an appearance of waves moving along in one definite direction, and never returning. It is very easy to attribute motion to ciliary action, and, of course, if the action be capable of driving liquid over the surface, it is also able to move the surface upon which the cilia are set, and the animal with it when that animal floats in liquid; but it is not an easy thing to explain the method of this action. When we say that the circulation in sponges is maintained by the ciliated chambers, the cilia of which whip the water in one direction, we are repeating what a multitude of writers have said before us, but we by no means explain the motion. If s switch be passed violently backwards and forwards through air or water, it creates a commotion, but it has no tendency to move the air or water, or the hand which holds it, in any de finite direction. How, then, do these minute switches effect their purpose? Why does not the effect of the motion in one direction exactly counterbalance the effect of the motion in the other? The writer conceives the following to be the explana tion, for which the reader will be in some measure prepared by the remarks already made on the ciliary action in the Rotatoria. Suppose we conceive of a number of upright rods set on a membrane in a line corresponding to the line of the resulting wares, and moving in a direction at right angles to this, or in the direction of the waves caused by them. If one cilium or red act alone, being rapidly brought down, the liquid will be thrown off from its sides to the right and left, the more obliquely in proportion to the rapidity of its motion. It will make its way by splitting the fluid, which, being thrown off laterally, will finally unite behind it. But suppose the rods on each side of this single rod are in motion in a parallel direction at the same time, then it comes in contact, not with stagnant water, but with the conjoined stream thrown off by these, which furnishes a

greater resistance than if it acted alone. The water thus impinging on the central rod will be prevented from readily uniting behind the other two; so that the vacuum will be filled up, not by the water which has passed through the interstices of the line of rods, but by fresh water which flows in from behind. In other words, when the cilium acts alone, the resistance it meets with is in proportion to the section of the rod itself; but when it acts with its neighbours, the resistance is little short of being proportional, not to the section of the several rods, but to them and the whole space which lies between them. This speculation seems to be confirmed by experiment; for if a sheet of wire

untouched the problem of how the cilia themselves are set in motion. The cilia of the Rotatoria seem to differ from those of most other animals in being under the control of the will of the animal.

When a better appreciation of the action of the ciliary fringes of these animals was attained, the name Rotifera (Wheel-bearing animalcules) was changed into Rotatoria, or rotary animals. Under this name they have been examined, and other details of their structure show them to be much more highly organised than the simple Protozoa, which inhabit the same waters, feed upon similar food, and are moved by a like agency.

They

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1. SCOLOPENDRA MORSITANS. II. GLOMERIS. III. JULUS. IV. ANTENNA AND EYES OF JULUS. V. UNDER SIDE OF A DOUBLE SEGMENT OF JULUS, SHOWING THE LEGS ON ONE SIDE. VI. NOTOMATA CENTRURA. VII. SCHEME SHOWING THE NATURE OF THE ROTARY ILLUSION. Refs, to Nos. in Figs.-V. 1, spiracle. VI. 1, ciliated disc; 2, gizzard; 3, stomach; 4, water-vascular system; 5, ovum; 6, forceps.

gauze be passed rapidly enough through the water, it is resisted with almost as great force as if it were not perforated. When fine sand is thrown out of a balloon in rapid descent, it appears to fly violently upward, although the resistance opposed by the atmosphere to each particle in relation to its weight is small as compared to that offered by the balloon in proportion to its weight. According to this theory, then, a number of cilia are depressed in concert and so create a wave, and only rise slowly and separately after the wave has passed on, and so assume an erect posture ready to propel a fresh wave at a considerable distance from the one which preceded it. This conforms well to the appearance created by the cilia both when they are used to pass liquid over their surface, and when they are employed as locomotive organs. This partial explanation leaves entirely

have a definite alimentary canal, complete from end to end, and in some this canal is of very complex structure. The animals are transparent, and admit of the examination of their internal organs while alive; and to aid in this examination, Ehrenberg placed some indigo, in an extremely fine state of division, into the water where they were. He had the satisfaction of seeing the little opaque particles moved by the ciliary currents, swallowed, and pass through the whole length of the alimentary canal, and thus make it more distinct. Immediately below the gullet, in some (as in the Notomata of our illustration), is an enlarged chamber, furnished with a tooth apparatus, which from its internal position is called a gizzard. In the Notomata the dental apparatus consists of two teeth, one situated on each side of a central fixed tooth, and playing upon it as the hammers

of two blacksmiths fall on an anvil. Below the gizzard is a globular or elongated stomach, which is succeeded in some species by a narrow intestine, but in the one before us ends at once in a cloaca, from which the exit is at the forked tail end of the animal. Round glands, supposed to represent the liver, empty themselves into the fore-part of the stomach. From the cloaca two winding ducts pass up, one on each side of these, and doubtless represent the water-vascular system which introduces aërated water from the outside. On these ducts, fastened by short stalks, are some little button-like organs, which are kept in rapid vibration; but their use is not known. The outer wall of the animal is often of an inflexible or little flexible material, which may be called a shell. This preserves the flask-shaped body in its ordinary dimensions, and gives origin to muscles which run to, and can retract into the shell, the disc at one end of the body, and also the forceps by which the animal attaches itself at the other end. The hind-part of these creatures is usually divided into rings, which, together with the structure of the stomach, show an approach to the Crustacean type. We must content ourselves with this short notice of the Rotatoria, and leaving them, return to the next class, which follows directly to the Annelids in the upward direction. If we wished to give to a sea-worm the powers of living in the air, and walking on the earth with as little change in its outward form as possible, we must, in the first place, replace its tufts of bristles by limbs which are directed downwards towards the earth. These limbs must have a hard point, to strike against and lay hold upon the unevennesses of the ground; and in order that the hold might be maintained while the body is being moved over the point of support, the limb must be jointed. Inflexible levers, with fixed points of application, necessitate fixed solid and resisting fulcra and firm structure, from whence the muscles which wield them may originate. Now the class Myriapoda, the members of which live in the air, differs from that of the Annelids, as far as their outward appearance and appendages are concerned, just in the way which these requirements indicate. The outer wall of the body is of a hard, horny substance, which, though not quite so inflexible as the mail in which the insect is encased, is still vastly harder than the integument of the worm. The limbs, also, are jointed levers. Besides these advances in structure, the organs of perception are better developed. The feelers stretch in front of the head, and are long and jointed. The eyes differ from those of insects in being simple instead of compound; but there are many of them gathered into two clusters on each side of the head. It might well be predicted that life in the air would require differences in the organs of respiration quite as marked as those! in the organs of relation. The tufts of vessels which served as gills to the worms, could not be floated out in the air so as to expose the contained fluid to its oxygen, and they would be liable to be torn or bruised. Hence respiration is carried on upon an entirely different plan, the air being introduced into the body, there to act on its fluid, instead of the fluids being taken to it. In the illustration, we have taken pains to exhibit the openings in the sides or under the animal, by which the air is received into the body; but we intend to leave the full description of these, and of the great system of air-vessels which is called the tracheal system, to be described when we write of the class Insecta, in which it is more largely developed. Another marked difference between the Myriapoda and the Annelids is exhibited in the circulatory or blood system. This system, instead of being an advance upon that of the worms, seems to be a degradation from it; for instead of a closed circuit of vessels which convey the blood in a definite direction, and never permit it to escape from their bounds, we have only a heart stretching along the back of the animal, divided into a longitudinal series of compartments by valves which allow the blood to pass towards the head only, while it is received from the general cavity of the body by slits in the sides of these compartments. Only a few vessels are given off from the front part of the heart to run to the head organs, and the blood is left to find its way back to the heart, not by vessels, but by soaking through spaces left between the viscera. The class Myriapoda has been divided into two orders, each is typically represented in the engraving. The type order is the Julus. Its body is an almost perfect ring of which it is composed bears on its under es of feeble legs, which are so small as to be

of

invisible when one is looking down on to the back of the animal. The generative organs open on the under side of the fore-part of the body, and it feeds on decaying wood.

The other order has the Scolopendra for its type. The transverse section of this animal is of oblong form, and exhibits a flattened structure; the broad, horny back and belly plates being joined to one another on each side by leathery side-pieces, on which the limbs are set, and the breathing-holes open. The jaws of this creature are most formidable, and a poison-bag within the body sends a very noxious secretion by a duct to the end of the fang. These creatures are carnivorous, and rapid in their movements, and their generative organs open at the end of the body, being in this respect, as in all others, more like the insects than the Julida.

LESSONS IN GERMAN.-XXXIII. SECTION LXIV.-VARIOUS IDIOMS (continued). Umhin (around there) is used only in connection with fönnen, as :— 3ch konnte nicht umhin, es ihm zu sagen, I could not (get) around, i.e., I could not help, or avoid, telling it to him. Ich habe nicht umbia gefonnt, es zu thun, I could not help doing it, I could not but do it. 1. Spazieren (to take a walk, to take an airing) signifies, in union with gehen, fahren, reiten, führen, to take a walk, to take the air in a coach, to ride out, or take the air on horseback, to lead about, or on a walk; as:-Gine Stunde des Tages ausgenommen, in welcher er seine Schwefter spazieren führt, sigt er beinahe immer an seinem Schreibtische und studirt, während sein jüngerer Bruter lieber frazieren geht, spazieren reitet, oder in Gesellschaft einiger Freunte frazieren fährt, one hour of the day excepted, in which he takes his sister for a walk, he is almost always sitting at his writing-desk and studying, while his younger brother prefers to go for a walk, to ride on horseback, or to take a drive in company with a few friends.

2. Thun (to do) is in some phrases used impersonally, as :Gs thut nichts, it does or effects nothing, i.e., it is no matter. G3 thut Neth, it is necessary.

3. Bebûte and bewahre, or Gott behüte, Gott bewahre, are often used, especially in conversation, to denote aversion, abhorrence, fcar, etc., and may commonly be rendered, “God forbid.” VOCABULARY. Hin'wenden (sich), to turn to. Intem', in that, while.

Arg, bad.

Aus biltung, f. cultivation, education.

Bebant lung, f. treat

ment.

Beleitigen, to offend. Bemerken, to observe. Beweisen, to prove. Bewerben (sich), to sue for. Bid, m. look, glance. Brüsten (sich), to be proud, to show airs Gurgast, guest (under cure). Danken, to thank. Entflie ben, to flee. Groß thun, to boast, Entwen'ten, to purloin brag.

m.

Italien, n. Italy. Kenntniß, f. know

ledge. Nietersinken, to sink down.

Obn'mächtig, weak, swooning, fainting Panzern, to arm with a coat of mail. Platte, f. plate, crown (top). Rennthier, n. reindeer. Schlitten, m sledge. Schnelligkeit, f. rapi

Tatel, m. blame, cendity.

sure.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

Tau'musgebirze, n. the Taunus mountains, a mountain range near the Rhine.

Umhin können. (See above.) Unglaublich, incredi

ble.

Versagen, to refuse. Borsäglich, intention. ally. [room. Wand, f. wall (of a Wenten, to turn. Wissenschaftlich, scientifically. 3u'bringen, to spend,

3u'träglich advantage

pass away.

ous, conducive to.

Gs ist eine vortreffliche Sache, keine. It is an excellent affair to have Bedürfnisse zu haben; eter wenn man nun einmal nicht umbin' kann, ei'nize zu haben, doch we'nigstens nicht mehr zu baben, als man schlechterdings haben muß. Gs thut freilich für den Augenblic wehe, eine Züchtigung zu erhal'. ten, die wir nicht vertient' haben; aber intem' wir uns unsrer Un schuld erinnern, lernen wir schnell das Erlit'tene vergeff'en.

Indem' er aber also cetach'te, stebe, da erschien ihm ein Engel.

It

no necessities; or, if one cannot by any means avoid having some, nevertheless, at least, not to have more than one is absolutely obliged to have. causes pain, indeed, for the moment, to receive a correc. tion that we have not me rited; but while we remem. ber our innocence, we soon learn to forget what we have suffered.

While he thus thought, how ever, behold there appeared an angel unto him.

EXERCISE 122.

1. Diejenigen, welche zu viel spazieren gehen, gewöhnen sich endlich an den Müßiggang. 2. Eine halbe Stunde nach dem Essen spazieren gehen ist der Gesundheit sehr zuträglich. 3. In Italien fahren Viele mit Mauls thieren frazieren. 4. Man sicht gewöhnlich mehr Herren spazieren gehen, als spazieren reiten. 5. Die Gurgäfte in Wiesbaden reiten oft auf Maulthieren auf die Platte des Taunusgebirges. 6. Reisen zu Fuß sind oft angenehmer, als zu Wagen oder zu Pferd. 7. Die Lapplanter fahren auf Schlitten, und bedienen sich der Rennthiere anstatt der Pferte. 8. Er verwandte beinahe kein Auge von seinen Verwandten, die er in so langer Zeit nicht gesehen hatte, und freute sich ihrer Erzählungen. 9. Für diesen jungen Soltaten haben sich die meisten Officiere bei dem General verwendet. 10. Ich wantte mich in meiner Noth an meine Freunde; allein, wo ich mich

hinwandte, sah ich nur gleichgültige Blicke. 11. Er entwandte mir (§ 129.

13.

15. Sie werden bei

Obs.) meine Uhr und einige andere Gegenstände, ohne daß ich es bemerkte. 12. Derjenige, welcher mit seinen Kenntnissen groß thut, beweist damit, daß er weniger weiß, als er sich brüstet und andere glauben machen will. Sie werten doch nicht (Sect. XLIII. 4) glauben, daß ich Sie vorsäßlich beleidigt hätte? 14. Gott behüte! ich habe nie so etwas Arges (Sect. XIV. 4) von Ihnen geglaubt und glauben wollen. tiefem schönen Wetter voch nicht zu Hause bleiben wollen? 16. bewahre, ich habe nicht Lust, einen so schönen Tag zwischen den vier Wänden meiner Stube zuzubringen. 17. Es haben sich mehrere um dieses Amt beworben, und zwar (Sect. XLIII. 4) folgende. 18. Ich kann nicht umhin, Ihnen zu sagen, daß mir diese Behandlung nicht gefällt. 19. Ich kann nicht umhin, Ihnen recht herzlich zu danken. 20. Als ich auf den Wolf schießen wollte, versagte mir die Flinte.

EXERCISE 123.

2. Preserve us,

1. He could not help expressing his censure. O Lord, from sin. 3. I could not help forgiving the wrongs which I had endured. 4. While he said this he sank down fainting. 5. We shall ride slowly to the park. 6. The queen took an airing on horseback yesterday. 7. This merchant boasts of his riches. 8. The Arabian rides on horseback with incredible rapidity. 9. When the knights of olden times rode to war, their horses were armed with a coat of mail. 10. Kings and princes are accustomed to take a drive with six horses. 11. When he could have escaped, his strength failed him. 12. The wood is used for building. 13. He has devoted the greatest part of his youth to scientific pursuits. 14. Journeys through the Rhine valley are more agreeable on foot than on horseback. 15. John leads his sister about the park, while her father rides on horseback.

SECTION LXV.-VARIOUS IDIOMS-(continued).

203 (loose, apart, etc.), when combined with verbs, has a variety of significations. Its exact force in any given place is best determined by the context, as :-Lesbinten, to unbind; fesgehen, to break out, to go off; lesreißen, to tear asunder. Ein Gewehr lesbrennen, to fire (off) a gun. Das Gewehr ist losgegangen, the gun (went off) discharged (accidentally). Der Streit geht wieder los, the contest is beginning again.

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erhalten.

schäftigt sein.

EXERCISE 124.

Emilie arbeitet so wenig wie möglich, um die Feinheit ihrer Hände zu 1. Der Arzt hat mir gerathen, so wenig wie möglich auszugehen. 2. 3. Die Kinter, sollten jeter Zeit so wenig wie möglich unbe 4. Er spricht so wenig, um keine Aufmerksamkeit zu erregen. 5. Ferdinand ist jezt sehr wenig zu Hause. 6. Auf der lezten Reise hatte 7. Wollen Sie etwas Fleisch haben? ich ganz wenig Gepäck bei mir. 8. Ja, aber nur ganz wenig. 9. Es bleibt ihm nichts übrig, als zu betteln, oder zu arbeiten. 10. Es bleibt nicht Anderes übrig, Sie müssen iest hanteln. 11. Von all seiner Habe blieb ihm nichts übrig, als ein

Stück Land.

13.

12. Diese Rose blich allein von allen Blumen übrig. 14. Ich kann diese Er blieb allein von dem ganzen Regimente übrig. 15. Um seine falschen Freunte los traurigen Gedanken nicht los werden. zu werden, muß man ihnen Geld borgen. 16. Gewähren Sie ihm seine 17. Jest ging der Spaß von Neuem los. Bitte, damit Sie ihn los werten. 19. Als der Krieg wieder losging, 18. Der Kalk an der Mauer geht los. zog er mit einem großen Heere in das Feld. 20. Das Gewehr ging los, als er es ergreifen wollte.

EXERCISE 125.

1. The physician advised my sister to stay at home as much as possible. 2. A teacher should always keep his scholars unemployed as little as possible. 3. The orator spoke with great enthusiasm, in order to raise the attention of his auditors. 4. Most travellers take with them as little luggage as possible. 5. Will you have some apples? 6. Thank you, Sir, I have quite enough. 7. Augustus is now very much at home, hence we may 8. There is nothing left for him but submission to 9. I had no other resource left me than to fly from the enemy. 10. Of all his property, nothing was left but a garden. 11. I cannot get rid of my cold. 12. Grant the request of this false friend, then you will get rid of him. 13. Who broke the foot of the table? 14. The servant broke it off, when she cleaned the room.

go to him.

his destiny.

15. Frederick the Great marched at the

head of his army to the war. 16. The gun went off accidentally, or he would have shot the hare.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN. EXERCISE 42 (Vol. I., page 239).

revoked."

1. On this intelligence, the riders urged their horses to greater speed. 2. The beautiful greenfinch has flown away from the boy. 3. The prospect of a rich reward incited them to rescue the rich nobleman's child. 4. The peasant has collected his field-produce, thrashed and stored it up. 5. The revengeful man is fond of using the adage, "Deferred is not 6. The hermit lives in his cell, separated from the people. 7. The war has destroyed many people, but the plague still more. 8. The sun has set. 9. On the termination of the war, the king discharged many soldiers. 10. The loadstone attracts and lightning. 11. The magnetic needle shows the pilot the North and the South. 12. The threatenings, as well as the promises, in the Bible, indicate the love of God. 13. The copper kettle has attracted verdigris. 14. The miller has disposed of his flour. 15. The father has confined the dog in his room. 16. The merchant praises the cloth to his customers. 17. Prayer elevates an afflicted heart. 18. The moon ascends behind the chain of mountains, and fills the earth with her mild light. 19. I get into the wagon, you get out of the wagon, and he mounts the horse. 20. The tired riders dismount their horses. 21. Will you take me with you when you go to Germany? 22. I do not think you are willing to go with me. EXERCISE 43 (Vol. I., page 239).

llcbrig, over, remain-iron ing. le'brigbleiben, to be left, to remain. Un beschäftigt, unem ployed. Zichen, to draw.

Der Drang, frei und selbstständig zu The desire to be free and indesein, ist einem jeden Menschen pendent is innate in every an'geberen, und ein Jeder bestrebt' human being; and this desich, diesen Drang, so viel wie sire every one endeavours as möglich zu befriedigen. much as possible to satisfy. In despotischen Lantern bleibt frei' In despotic countries there refinnigen Männern nichts An'teres mains to free-minded men übrig, als entweder ihre Gesin' nothing else, than either to nungen zu verber'gen und ihre conceal their sentiments and Gefühle zu unterdruck'en, oder die suppress their feelings, or Wahl zwischen Ketten und Flucht. the choice between chains and flight.

* Would not go off, i.o., missed fire.

1. Nach Beendigung des Krieges werten die Soltaten abbezahlt werden. 2. Ich werde mit Ihrem Bruter zu dem Gremiten gehen, der abgesondert von der Welt lebt. 3. Der Landmann hat die Früchte des Felde eingesammelt. 4. Die Rürger sind von dem Feinde in der Stadt eingeschlossen. 5. Der Krieg und die Pest haben sehr viele Menschen umgebracht. 6. Der mute Reiter steigt von seinem Pferde ab. 7. Der Kaufmann hat seinen Verrath abgefeßt. 8. Die Sonne geht im Osten auf. 9. Die Sonne geht zwanzig Minuten nach fünf Uhr auf, und geht um halb sieben Uhr unter 10. Sie müssen Ihre Schüler anspornen fleißiger zu sein. 11. Sie Ihren Besuch für Morgen aufschieben? 12. Die Magnetna nach dem Norten. 13. Der Schüler hat seine Aufgaben abgeschri

LESSONS IN MUSIC.-XII.

RELATION OF NOTES, ETC.

1. In pursuance of the plan of the last Lesson, while our pupils are continuing their practice and study of the three chief notes of the scale, we shall " revise" and enlarge our previous Lessons in reference to those points which are capable of being misunderstood, or need to be more fully explained. We must ask the patience of those pupils who have put themselves into our hands, with all good faith, content to learn one thing at a time, for we have to teach many who cannot understand us, because they have misunderstood music before. Docility-that quality so absolutely necessary to the student of any arranged course of lessons, which develops truth step by step, leads from the known to the unknown, from the easy to the difficult-is too often forgotten; and, as Dr. Marx says, to punish him for neglect of docility, the student loses all certainty of success. The "MOVABLE DOH," on account of the common misapprehension of the first foundations of musical truth, and the false teachings which are abroad, is a great difficulty with some of our pupils. One of them "proceeded very pleasantly as far as the fifth Exercise, in which the key-note (or DOH) is G. But that he could not understand." He says, "In the previous exercise the notes DOH, ME, SOHн, are placed respectively below the line and in the first and second spaces; but in the exercise I have mentioned, I find DOH on the second line. Why should there be that change in the position of the note? And how is it to be sounded?" The last question is clearly answered in the note to Exercise 5-"Take a middle sound of your voice for the key-note or DOH." In the previous exercises a low sound had been taken for DOH. In the first case any middle sound, and in the second any low sound, would have answered the purpose. The reason of the change of DOH's position on the staff is, that the staff aims to represent to us height and lowness of absolute pitch, as well as key-relationship; and as the foundation-note of key-relationship, which we call DOH, had before been a low sound of the voice, and at the bottom of the "ladder of pitch," now that this governor of key-relationship (DOH) is to be at a middle pitch of voice, it is necessary that it should be placed higher on the staff.

2. Another correspondent states his difficulty thus:-"The key-note of one piece not being always the same [in pitch] as that of another, we are not able to recognise, with the sol-fa syllables, the same sounds [in pitch] which we sing to them in other pieces. What I would ask, then, is, whether we are always to sing the same sounds [in pitch] to each syllable, or merely to guess the sound of the syllable by its position in relation to that immediately preceding ?" Decidedly, you are not to sing the sol-fa syllables to the same pitch-sounds in one tune which they had in a previous tune, unless the key-note (DOH) is the same pitch in both. For we use the syllables to represent, to mind and ear, the key-relationship of notes. And we use the well-known letters c1, B, A, G, F, E, D, to represent their absolute pitch. We hope presently to show that this practice of ours is both the oldest and the best. But do not let our friends suppose that upon any of the common plans of solfa-ing they can associate a distinct idea of pitch with each place on the staff. Take, for instance, the first place below the staff. That place may be filled by any one of three perfectly distinct sounds, by D, by D sharp, or by D flat. Now you may call these three sounds by the same name-RAY, for instancebut they are three most distinguishable sounds still. M. Fetis, the well-known French writer on music, very truly observes, that, “a sound cannot be altered or substituted for another without ceasing to exist: Do sharp is no longer DO. mere error so to call it, and it is one of those errors which have tended to render music obscure." Your syllable RAY, then, cannot possibly represent a distinct idea of pitch. It can only stand for an indistinct, or, at best, a threefold idea! Hence the indecision of voice, common among those who pursue the fixed method of solfa-ing.

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3. Neither let our friends imagine that, even if they could establish in their minds a fixed association of absolute pitch with each place on the staff, in learning to sing at sight, it is the attainment chiefly to be sought. For, undoubtedly, omise a note by the effect which it produces on was amply proved in our eighth lesson, the the mind arises not, except in a small degree,

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from its pitch, but chiefly from its key-relationship. We agree with the learned man and skilful teacher Dr. Bryce, of Belfast, in saying, "It is by no means intended to say that the power of distinguishing the absolute pitch of each note in the standard scale [not including the flats and sharps] with some approach to accuracy is unattainable; nor that, when attained, it is useless. But it ought not to be the first thing attempted: first, because it is not essential either to the perception of melody and har mony, or to their execution; and, secondly, because it will be acquired with far greater ease after the mind has learned to feel the relation of the notes of the scale to one another, whatever the absolute pitch of the individual notes may be." 66 'It is this relation of the notes to one another which constitutes music. The [pitch] notes F, c', F', A, c1, B flat, A, G, form melody, not because they are [the pitch notes] F, c1, A, etc., but because they are respectively the 1st, 5th, 8th, 3rd, 5th, 4th, 3rd, 2nd of a particular scale. The proof of this is, that the very same melody is produced by any other notes which stand in the same relation, as for example, by G, D, G1, B, D, C, B, A, or by D, A, D, F sharp, A, G, F sharp, E, which are the 1st, 5th, 8th, 3rd, 5th, 4th, 3rd, 2nd, in their respective scales, and by no notes whatever that stand in a different relation." Some of our readers will understand these remarks better when they see this same phrase (essentially the same, though placed at different heights in pitch) in the old notation. They will perceive that the sol-fa syllables, which, having taken their pitch from the key-note, represent thenceforth only relationship of sound, remain the same in all three cases. And why should they not? for the tune is essentially the same!

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4. Once more, let not our friends suppose, with the corre spondent last named, that it is necessary to "guess" at the sound of the notes, because DOH is placed wherever the keynote is. If your DOH were fixed, and were nothing but another name for the pitch-note c, as in the French method of solfa-ing, then, indeed, you would have to “guess" at the sound of the notes. For instance, when you saw RAY, you would have to guess which of the three RAYS (abovenamed) it was. But if, on the English plan of solfa-ing, you make DOH the key-note, then RAY is always at one and the same interval from DOH, and always produces a corresponding mental effect. And, as it is by this relative position and mental effect that notes are most easily recognised and most correctly sung, you will soon learn to know and to strike the right sound with a decision and accuracy perfectly unattainable on the other plan, and without any "guessing" at all. As Mr. Lowell Mason says, "Ours would be more properly called the im movable DOH," for it is immovably fixed as the key-note. The other DOH is at all the parts of the scale by turns.

5. We are anxious to carry the perfect satisfaction of our pupils along with us, and must therefore step aside a moment longer to prove to them, once for all, that the method of solfaing with "the movable DоH"-especially as distinguished from the French method imported by Dr. Shuttleworth and Mr. Hullah-is the oldest, is supported by the best authority, and is in itself the best for educational purposes. generally admitted that Guido Aretino, the monk of Arezzo, who in the eleventh century invented both the staff and the use of the sol-fa syllables, applied the syllable UT (for which DOH has since been substituted) to the key-note. (See the Musical Histories of Dr. Burney and Sir J. Hawkins.) Morley, the

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