Of

green leaves and pink blossoms of this plant are admirably rendered, as far as their form and manner of growth are concerned, in Fig. 166. The garden peas that are grown for the table are varieties of the Pisum sativum, or common cultivated pea. Many Leguminosa of the Old World contain an astringent juice, which, being caused to flow from incisions and dried, becomes hardened into substances employed in medicine and the arts. this description is the substance resin. Several American species are used for dyeing; for example, the so-called Brazil or Pernambuco wood is the produce of a leguminous plant, the Casalpinia echinata. Sappan wood (Caesalpinia sappan) is another, as in like manner is logwood (Hæmatoxylon Campechianum, Fig. 165), and red sandal-wood (Pterocarpus santalinus). But assuredly the most important of all the leguminous dye materials is indigo (Fig. 167), the produce of the Indigofera tinctoria, a native of tropical Asia, but now cultivated in many other tropical regions. Blue indigo, however, does not exist ready formed in the indigo plant, but is procured from it by submitting the plants to a sort of fermentation. The chemical nature of indigo is very peculiar, differing from all other dye-stuffs, and does not admit of being explained in few words.

The

method, however, of preparing indigo blue may be described briefly as fol lows:-The plant, when sufficiently grown for the purpose, is pulled up and steeped in water, as we steep flax for the preparation of linen yarn, until fermentation takes place. A yellow solution is thus procured, which is drawn off from the decaying vegetable matter, and exposed to the air. In course of time a precipitate of a dark-blue colour is obtained-the indigo of commerce -which is dried and pressed into lumps for exportation. Indigo is obtained principally from Hindostan and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The plant is also cultivated in Central America.

The so-called aloe wood is a resinous aromatic wood furnished by a leguminous tree which grows in certain mountainous regions of Cochin China. Its botanical name is Aloexylon Agallochum.

168

there except in hot-houses; but we have, at least, the delicateblossomed, odour-diffusing sweet pea.

SECT. XXXIV.-BORAGINACEE, OR THE BORAGE TRIBE. Although it will be impossible in this work to do more than

167

mention the names of many natural orders of plants, a detailed list of which will be given in a tabular form at the end of these lessons, yet we will at least find space for a description of the natural order which contains that universal favourite, the myosotis or forget-me-not.

Characteristics: Calyx free; corolla hypogynous, monosepalous, or regular sub-labiate; stamens five, inserted on the tube of the corolla alternate with the divisions; carpels four, rarely arranged in pairs; seeds inverse dicotyledonous, little or no albumen; radicle, superior.

There is a certain tribe of plants which Linnæus termed Asperifolia, on account of the hair-like projections with which their leaves and stems are studded. Prominent amongst these vegetables is borage; hence the modern term Boragi nacea, now applied to the order.

Remark the peculiar fashion in which the flowers of a forget-me-not grow. The stem which bears them is coiled up like the main-spring of a watch, and as the flowers grow the coils unfold. This kind of inflorescence is denominated by the botanist gyrate, from the Latin gyro, to move in a circle, and is as distinctive of the borage tribe and certain allies as the minute characteristics enumerated in our preliminary list.

Copal resin, a valuable constituent of many varnishes, is the produce of a leguminous vegetable, of which the name and even the true locality were long unknown. The tree yielding it is now demonstrated to be the Hymenaa verrucosa, a native of Madagascar, and called by the natives Tanrouk-rouki. Balm of Peru, balsam of tolu, and gum tragacanth, are also the produce of various species of Leguminosa. This is a long list of products of plants used in medicine and dyeing, but we might fill whole pages in this way, so fertile in medicinal products are the Leguminosa. Suffice it to say, that tamarinds, cassia, senna, gum-arabic, and catechu (one sort), are all the produce of vegetables belonging to this natural order. None of these medicinal and highly odorous species are natives of our temperate clime, or admit of being grown

Let us now pay attention to the flower. The calyx consists of five sepals, which remain joined to each other to the extent of half the flower, thus constituting the tube. The border of the corolla is also divided into five lobes. Lastly, we observe five stamens and an ovary, from which springs one style, terminated by a double stigma. In correspondence with four lobes of the ovary, we observe four nut-like things which used to be mistaken for seeds; they are really fruits. This peculiarity of fruit and of inflorescence (gyrate) are the grand distinctive characteristics of the borage natural order, the members of which are all harmless, and many of them the sources of valuable dyeing materials. We insert a drawing (Fig. 168) of the bugloss or oxtongue (Anchusa officinalis), a plant belonging to this order.

A decoction of the roots of the bugloss was once much used as a demulcent drink. From the roots of another plant of this order, called the alkanet (Anchusa tinctoria), a resinous dye of a red colour is obtained. The borage (Borago officinalis), from which, as we have said, the name of the order is taken, is supposed to possess some cooling property, and its leaves and flowers are often put into "cool tankards," or drinks made of wine, water, sugar, and lemons. The young leaves may be used in salads, or they may be boiled and eaten like spinach. The blossoms of plants belonging to the borage tribe are, for the most part, of a beautiful blue of a deeper tint than the flowers of the forget-me-not.

LESSONS IN BOOKKEEPING.-III. PRINCIPAL RULES FOR FINDING THE DEBTOR AND CREDITOR.

3. WHEN a Merchant buys Goods of a dealer on Credit, he becomes the Debtor, and the dealer becomes the Creditor. The quantity and the value of the Goods are accordingly entered in the Merchant's books to his own debit, that is, on the Dr. side of the Account of the Goods in the Ledger; the quantity and the value of the Goods, or at least their value, is also entered in

February 20th, 1863.

the Merchant's Books to the Dealer's credit, that is, on the Cr. side of the Dealer's Account in the Ledger. The very reverse of this would take place in the Dealer's books, supposing they were kept on the same system as the Merchant's books. Let us illustrate this rule by an example: On the 20th of February, 1863, I, a Cotton Merchant, bought of James Smith, a Cotton Dealer,* 15 bags of Cotton, weighing Net 4319 lbs. at 74d. per lb. Discount 1 per cent. for 1 month, value £132 18s. 11d. Here, the first entry of this transaction would be in the Day. Book, or Goods Bought Book, as follows:

-

When the Merchant pays the value of the Goods which he bought on credit in money or in bills, the nature of the transaction is completely reversed; the dealer is now considered to become the Debtor, and the Merchant to become the Creditor; on the business principle formerly mentioned, viz., that a person is debtor for what he receives, and creditor for what he gives away. The value of the goods thus paid is then entered in the Merchant's books to the Dealer's debit, that is, on the Dr. side of the Dealer's Account; and also to the Merchant's credit, that is, on the Cr. side of the Merchant's Account of money or bills. In this manner the transaction is settled between them, and the accounts so far as regards the two parties are balanced.

These explanations are equally applicable to transactions of a more complicated nature, if it once be clearly understood in these transactions who are the Debtors and who are the Creditors, and why they are so. The object of making entries in a Merchant's books in the manner above described—that is, under the Personal Accounts (of the customers or dealers), and under the Fictitious Accounts (of the Goods bought or sold)-is to avoid the continual repetition of the Merchant's own name in his own books as a Debtor or Creditor. By this method also, a very important end is gained, viz., that of keeping a distinct account of all the various kinds of property which belong to him, or which pass through his hands in the course of his transactions in business. Hence, the universal rule, which cannot be too often repeated, that the Article received by a Merchant is always made Debtor in his Books to the Person from whom it was received; and the Person who receives an Article, or to whom it is given, is always made Debtor to the Article which he has received, or which has been given to him. This is invariably the practice in keeping books by Double Entry, whether the Article received or given be GOODS, Cash, or Bills.

This principle, moreover, is extended to such mercantile transactions as the Purchase and Sale of Stock, either in the Government Funds or in the funds of Public Companies; the effecting of Insurances on Goods, either for export or import; a settlement of Profits and Losses; and the engagement in

Speculations or Adventures of any kind, whether they relate to Shipments or Consignments to foreign markets, to the import of foreign produce, or to the purchase of large quantities of Goods at home, in the expectation of a sudden rise in their price. Separate Accounts are usually opened in the Ledger for all transactions of the latter class, in order that the Merchant may distinctly ascertain the actual amount of his gain or loss on each Speculation or Adventure, as well as on all other accounts of property or business of every kind. Hence, the Accounts opened in the Ledger kept by Double Entry are generally of three kinds, namely, Personal Accounts, Property Accounts, and Profit and Loss Accounts. The Personal Accounts are, strictly speaking, the only real Accounts, being the Accounts of the Persons who transact business of any kind with the Merchant. The Property Accounts are the Accounts of the dif ferent kinds of Property belonging to a Merchant; those in which he usually deals or effects business transactions; in short, those by which he ultimately expects not only to make a livelihood, but to be able to retire with a decent competency, if not a fortune: these accounts constitute the staple commodfty of his business. The Profit and Loss Accounts are the Accounts of Charges, Interest, Discount, and Expenses of every kind which add to or subtract from the profits of his business: and the accounts of Speculations and Adventures by which extra. ordinary profits are expected to be made, but which often termi nate in extraordinary loss, and sometimes in the actual ruin of the Merchant.

From our previous explanations, the general rules for finding the Debtor and Creditor are in some measure anticipated. Nevertheless, we shall here arrange them in a more formal manner, in order to assist the learner :

1st. A Personal Account is debited (made Debtor) to a Property Account, when a Person receives property from you, or when you send it to his order.

2nd. A Personal Account is debited to a Profit and Loss

This name is given merely for the sake of distinction.

Account, when you incur Expenses for him, or transact Business on his Account (as Agent or otherwise), for which you are to receive Commission, etc.; and when Shipments or Consignments are made to a person either as Principal or Agent.

3rd. A Personal Account is credited (made Creditor) by a Property Account, when you receive Property from a Person, or when he sends it to your order. 4th. A Personal Account is credited by a Profit and Loss Account, when a Person incurs Expenses for you or transacts business on your Account (as Agent or otherwise), for which he is to receive Commission, etc., and when Shipments or Consignments are made to you, either as Principal or as Agent.

5th. A Property Account is debited to a Personal Account when you receive Property from a Person, or when he sends it to your order.

6th. A Property Account is credited by a Personal Account when a Person receives Property from you, or when you send it

to his order.

7th. A Profit and Loss Account is debited to a Personal Account, when a Person incurs Expenses for you, or transacts Business on your Account (as Agent or otherwise), for which he is to receive Commission, etc.

8th. A Profit and Loss Account is credited by a Personal Account, when you incur Expenses for a Person, or transact Business on his Account, etc.

9th. A Profit and Loss Account is debited to a Property Account, when Property is risked in a Speculation or Adventure.

10th. A Profit and Loss Account is credited by a Property Account, when the returns of a Speculation or the net proceeds

of an Adventure are received.

11th. A Property Account is debited to a Profit and Loss Account, when the returns of a Speculation or the net proceeds of

an Adventure are received.

12th. A Property Account is credited by a Profit and Loss Account, when Property is risked in a Speculation or Adven

ture.

13th. The Profit and Loss Account, specially so denominated, is debited to a Personal or Property Account for any loss which occurs in business.

14th. The Profit and Loss Account, so called, is credited by a Personal or Property Account for any gain which arises in business.

The converses of the two preceding rules are so obvious, that we leave them to the ingenuity of our pupils; it is quite possible that a teacher may sometimes explain too much, and thus give his pupils no opportunity of exerting their powers of thought. We have often erred in this respect ourselves. We shall conclude this lesson with an old rhyme, which, to a certain extent, includes the preceding rules:-

"By Ledger laws, what I receive

Is Debtor made to those who give;
Stock for my Debts must Debtor be,
And Creditor by Property;
Profit and Loss Accounts are plain,
I Debit Loss and Credit Gain."

LESSONS IN GERMAN.-XXVIII. SECTION LIV.-PREPOSITIONS REQUIRING THE

DATIVE.

THE prepositions entgegen, gemäß, nebst, seit, etc. (§§ 111, 112), govern the dative, as :-Dem Strome entgegen schwimmen ist nicht leicht, to swim against the stream is not easy. Er erzählt die Sache der Wahrheit gemäß, he relates the affair conformably to the truth. Gr, nebst seinen beiden Söhnen, ist in Amerika, he, together with both

his sons, is in America. Seit dem Tage, an dem er seine Heimath ver ließ, ist alle Freude von ihm gewichen, since the day that he left his country (home), all gladness has forsaken him.

7. Nach

nadten Leben hatte er nichts gerettet. 3. Bei dem Kampfe verloren mehrere 1. Aus diesem Grunde verließ ich mein Vaterland. 2. Außer dem Soldaten ihr Leben. 4. Unsere Truppen rückten dem Feinde entgegen. 5. tamen bie Verbündeten in der Nacht auf dem Rütli zusammen. Dem Freunde gegenüber saß der Prediger. 6. Der Verabredung gemäß dem Falle Carthago's ging das römische Reich seiner Auflösung immer mehr entgegen. 8. Nächst dem General kommt der Oberst. 9. Ich habe Herrn ben ersten Tagen sammt unserem Freunde besuchen. 11. Mit Pfeil und N. nebst seinen Kindern zum Essen eingeladen. Bogen geht der Indianer auf die Jagd. 12. Seit dem dreißigjährigen Ariege hat es nicht ähnliche Scenen gegeben. 13. Von mir dürfen Sie Alles fordern. 14. Zum Himmel aufschauend gab der Kranke seinen Geist auf. 15. Ihm zunächst stand der König. 16. Dem Wunsche seines Vaters zuwider trat er in das Heer.

EXERCISE 105.

10. Wir werden Sie in

1. I am going on, according to my former custom. 2. My friend went to meet my enemy. 3. Opposite me sat my mother by the side of my uncle. 4. I rode across the park. 5. He is inquiring after my sister. 6. Since I was there, I have heard nothing more about the affair. 7. I have not seen him since yesterday. 8. I have sent the letter to his house. 9. He went out of the room. 10. I was with my brother. 11. This is against the law.

SECTION LV.-PREPOSITIONS REQUIRING THE

ACCUSATIVE.

114), govern the accusative, as-Sie haben mich durch Ihre GroßThe prepositions durch, entlang,* gegen, sonder, um, etc. (§§ 113, muth besiegt, you have vanquished me by your magnanimity. Ich ging mit ihm den Fluß entlang, I went with him along the river. Das Schicksal hat sich gegen mich empört, (the) Destiny has risen up against me. Alle Hoheit der Erde ohne herzliche Liebe ist Staub, all the grandeur of the world without heart-felt love is dust. Ich habe diesen Morgen einen Spaziergang um die Start gemacht, I have taken (made) a walk round the town this morning.

VOCABULARY.

An'richten, to cause,do. | Cin'treffen, to come in,

Arznei', f. medicine. Aufopfern, to sacrifice. Aus'nahme, f. exception. Bereit', prompt,ready. Befit, m. possession.

Besorg'nis, f. fear, apBestra'fen, to punish. prehension. Dazwisch'enkunft, f. interposition. Ebbe, f. tide.

arrive. Entlang', along. Erschie'ßen, to shoot(to kill by shooting). Gefan'gen,

caught, captured (as noun, prisoner). Gegen, against. Krankheit, f. sickness. Kai'serin, f. empress. Küste, f. shore. Marie', f. Mary. More, f. fashion.

Offen, open, frank.
Destreich, n. Austria.
Ohne, without.
Richten, to direct.
Rüstung, f. prepara-
tion, arming, ar-

mour.

Schimmern, to glitter,
glimmer.
Stud, n. part, piece.
Schle'sten, n. Silesia.
Wahrheit, f. truth.
Wider, against.
Zweifel, m. doubt.

* Entlang, however, requires the genitive when it precedes the word it governs, as :-Wir hatten den ganzen Tag gejagt, entlang des Waltgebirges (Schiller), we had hunted the whole day along the moun

tainous forest.

9.

1. Durch diesen Wald ist nicht zu kommen. 2. Diese Briefe erhielt ich heute Morgen durch einen guten Bekannten. 3. Den Fluß entlang sab man die schimmernten Rüstungen der Feinte. 4. Für einen Freund muß man Alles aufzuopfern bereit sein. 5. Für dieses Betragen bestrafte ter Vater den Knaben. 6. Man richtete die Kanonen gegen rie Start. 7. Du bist in neuerer Zeit nicht mehr so offen gegen mich, als es früher der Fall war. 8. Die Feinde erschossen die Gefangenen alle ohne Ausnahme. Ohne die Dazwischenkunft des Vaters hätten die Kinder ein großes Unglück anrichten können. 10. Ohne Zweifel wird mein Freund heute hier eintreffen. 11. Um die Besorgnisse der Mutter nicht noch mehr zu erhöhen, sagte er ihr nicht in allen Stücken die Wahrheit. 12. Um den Besiß Schlesiens führte Varia Theresia, Kaiserin von Estreich, sieben Jahre lang Krieg mit Friedrich II., König von Preußen. 13. Gegen diese Krankheit gibt es keine Arzenei.

EXERCISE 107.

1. Nothing is done but through the permission of God. 2. The power of God is known throughout the world. 3. The French revolution in the last century shook the whole of Europe. 4. Several days ago I took a walk along the Rhine from Coblenz to Lahnstein. 5. Without doubt, thou wilt ask me for my opinion. 6. This lady is dressed after the French fashion. 7. I have gained nothing by his losses. 8. They all went into the country except two. 9. The ship in which we were had wind and tide against her. 10. I have seen all the villages about Paris. 11. He undertook the work for me. 12. He walked along the shore.

SECTION LVI.-PREPOSITIONS REQUIRING THE
DATIVE OR ACCUSATIVE.

The prepositions auf, hinter, über, etc. (§§ 115, 116) are construed with the dative or accusative; with the dative in answer to the question where? with the accusative in answer to the question where to? as:-Wir wohnen auf dem Lante, we reside in

the country. Der Matrose klettert auf die Sriße des Mastes, the sailor climbs up to the top of the mast. Obgleich er diese Ränke hinter meinem Rücken schmiedete, so kam ich dennoch bald hinter dieselben und vereitelte fie, although he fabricated (forged) these tricks behind my back, I soon got (came) (Sect. XXVIII. 1) behind them (the same) and frustrated them. Ein Gewitter hängt über der Start, a thunderstorm is hanging over the town. Ueber diesen Gegenstand möchte ich gern eine Rede halten, upon this subject I would fain make (hold) a speech.

VOCABULARY. f. spring, Rat, n. wheel. Schlachtfeld, n. battlefield. Seßen (sich), to seat (one's self).

Spannen.

(See An

svannen). Steffen, to place, put. Stügen, to lean, re

pose.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

Treffen, to hit. Urtheilen, to judge, decide. Verber'gen, to hide. Verschanzen, to entrench, fortify. Vorfall, m. event, incident. Vorzüglich, excellent. Wohnen, to dwell. 3ermal'men, to pound, crush.

Zwei edle römische Jünglinge spann ten sich, in Ermang lung ter Ochsen, selbst vor den Wagen, um ihre Mutter nach dem fernen Tempel der Dia'na zu ziehen.

Two noble Roman youths, for the want of oxen, harnessed themselves before the wagon, in order to draw their mother to the distant temple of Diana.

EXERCISE 108.

1. An der Duelle saß der Knabe. (Schiller.) 2. An diesen Berfall knürfen sich viele Ereignisse. 3. Auf den Bergen ist die Luft reiner, als in den Thälern. 4. Auf die Menschen soll man sich nicht zu viel stüzen. 5. Hinter jenen Mauern verschanzte sich der Feint. 6. Hinter mich stellte sich ein Freund. 7. In diesem Hause sind viele Zimmer. 8. Ein jeter Mensch soll in sein eigenes Herz sehen. 9. Neben rem Hause steht die Scheune. 10. Seine Nichte sezte sich neben mich. 11. Ueber uns erblicken wir ten Himmel. 12. Ueber die Vorzüge dieses Mannes kann ich nicht urtheilen. 13. Unter allen Freunden ist mir dieser der liebste. 14. Jesus trat unter seine Jünger und sprach: „Wer Ohren hat zu hören, der höre." 15. Vor meinen Freunden habe ich keine Geheimnisse. 16. Der Kutscher spannt die Pferde vor den Wagen. 17. Der Mond kommt oft zwischen Sonne und Erte, und die Erde zwischen Sonne und Mont zu stehen. Der Arm des Unglücklichen kam zwischen die zermalmenten Råter der Maschine. 19. Von einem Gegenstand kamen sie auf den antern. 20. Sie spannten rie Ochsen an den Pflug.

EXERCISE 109.

18.

1. He climbed up a tree. 2. Virtue dwells in thee. 3. I saw him in church. 4. The town lay behind me. 5. My friend was at my side. 6. My sister played on the pianoforte. 7. His speech lasted over two hours. 8. A counsellor is above an advocate. 9. He hides himself behind the tree. 10. He had done it in a passion. 11. Let us go into the house. 12. He wished to be introduced to the family of Mr. N. 13. He got greatly into debt in a short time. 14. They went over the ice. 15. You have spilt the water over the carpet.

KEY TO THE EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN. EXERCISE 21 (Vol. I., page 135).

1. Carpenters, joiners, tailors, and masons are mechanics. 2. Miners 3. The English are a quiet people. work in the depth of the earth. 4. Industrious mechanics earn much money in America. 5. The rich man has a good coat, and the beggar a bad one. 6. The virtuous man shuns (the) vice. 7. The fortunate (man) pities the unfortunate. 8. The unlearned (woman) envies the learned. 9. The learned is not always the useful. 10. Mr. N. is in the room. 11. Madam N. is at the theatre. 12. I go with you, Sir. 13. I wish you a good morning, Miss. 14. I was yesterday in a company of ladies. 15. Mrs. N. is very lively. 16. I do not see the lady ambassadress. 17. The minister 18. The wife of the councillor of the court is in is likewise there. mourning. 19. Good evening, Professor. 20. Where are your wife, your son, and your daughter? 21. They are at the concert. 22. From the sublime to the ridiculous is only one step. 23. The rich (man) has two houses, three men-servants, four horses, twelve oxen, and eighty sheep. 24. This huntsman has five dogs, and that (one) has eight.

EXERCISE 22 (Vol. I., page 135).

5. Gr

1. Die Deutschen sind ein fleißiges Volk. 2. Mein Bater fennt einen gelehrten Professor, aber einen unglücklichen. 3. Die Ungelehrte menet die Gelehrte. 4. Der Sterbente hat ein Buch in seiner Hant verehrt das Schöne und das Erhabene. 6. Das Gold ist ein erles Metall, Silber ist es auch, aber Kupfer und Eisen sind es nicht. 7. Haben Sie den armen Heinrich und die kleine Helene gesehen? 8. Ihr Freunt, ter Garitain, war in tem Theater. 9. Ich sehe den Herrn Oberst dort in tem Garten. 10 Guten Morgen, Herr President. 11. 3ft Ihre Frau Mutter zu Hause ? 12. Guten Abend, mein Herr, wo ist Ihre Fräulein Schwester und Ihr Herr Bruter?

EXERCISE 23 (Vol. I., page 151).

1. I love the neighbour's child. 2. The father has sent this letter to me. 3. I shall warn the friend. 4. I have watched the whole night by the sick brother. 5. The huntsmen were hunting yesterday morning in the forest, and will hunt this afternoon in the vicinity of the village. 6. My friend loved fame and glitter. 7. He has plucked a rose, and presented it to his (lady) friend. 8. A clever mason of this city has built this beautiful house. brave soldier, but not the esquire or the nobleman. 9. Napoleon esteemed the 10. The labours of my youth have strengthened my body. 11. Conscience warns people from (the) sin.

HISTORIC SKETCHES.-XVIII.

HOW ENGLAND BECAME POSSESSED OF INDIA.

WE are so apt to take things for granted, just as we find them, that we are often not struck by facts which of themselves are sufficiently startling. Compare England with India for size, for the number of inhabitants, and is it not remarkable enough that one should exercise domination over the other-should, by means of a force ludicrously disproportionate to the number of native inhabitants, hold undisputed sway over it? It was not always so. Time was when the sovereigns who ruled in India were unapproachably mighty in comparison with the sovereigns who ruled in England. The latter country was to the former but as the cloud no bigger than a man's hand, which appeared on the horizon of Indian splendour when the very name of Indian potentates was sufficient to awe the most adventurous Englishman, and when, indeed, the power of India was a substantial reality. But how came the English in India at all? Why they, rather than other Europeans? The story, with all its details, is a long one, but an outline of it may be given within the limits permitted to our sketch.

The English cannot assume as their motto the legend borne by one of their regiments, Primus in Indis. Vasco de Gama, and his Portuguese companions, who in May, 1497, stepped ashore at Calicut, were the first Europeans who had been seen in India since the days of Alexander the Great. Under the command of distinguished soldiers they made good their footing, and established themselves along the coasts of Malabar and the Persian Gulf, at Goa and Ormuz. With the Portuguese remained for more than sixty years the monopoly of such trade as there was between India and the West, but when this began to attract by its richness, the Dutch took part in it, and established themselves in Java, and in one or two places on the Indian continent. Not till the last years of the sixteenth century was English commercial energy aroused to the importance of the Eastern trade, and when in 1600 the first company of " Adventurers," the first East India Company, was enrolled under a charter from Queen Elizabeth, the English merchants found themselves forestalled in what were deemed the most desirable places in India by Dutch, Portuguese, and Spaniards. They established themselves, however, at Surat, and at Bantam, in the island of Java, and for some years confined their operations to quite moderate ventures, though they had the entire monopoly of the trade with England, and had very large powers to protect themselves in the maintenance of their monopoly.

During the civil war in England a rival company sprang up, which for over fifty years carried on its business to the detriment of the interests of both societies; but in 1702 a union was effected, and the great company known as The East India Company was formed.

In 1640 the English first obtained a right to a portion of Indian ground. They obtained permission from a Hindoo prince in the Carnatic to buy a piece of land in the neighbourhood of the Portuguese settlement of St. Thomé, and there they built Fort St. George and the town of Madras. By treaty between Charles II. and the Portuguese Court, the town and island of Bombay were made over to the English in 1668, and by permission of the native princes a factory was also established about the same time at Hooghly, on one of the branches of the Ganges. Disturbances between the Company's servants and the natives caused a petty war, and at one time it was a question whether any Europeans should be allowed to remain in the dominions of the Great Mogul, whose power extended over almost the whole of India, and who dwelt at Delhi in unheard-of splendour. It was only by the most complete submission on the part of the Europeans that terms were made, and even then the English, afraid of the possible consequences of what had happened, removed their station from Hooghly to Chuttanuttee, about twenty-five miles lower down towards the mouth of the river. In 1698 they obtained from the Great Mogul a grant of the land on which their factory stood, in return for an annual quit-rent. The fort which they built for the defence of the factory was called Fort William, and the place is now the site of the city of Calcutta.

The influence of the Dutch and Portuguese had ceased to be hostile, or even a matter of consequence, before the union of the two English companies, that is to say, before 1702; but the French, who had, under Louis XIV., started an East India Com

pany of their own, had made settlements which soon became formidable to our own. Chandernagore, on the river above Calcutta, Pondicherry, about eighty miles south of Madras, the Isle de Bourbon, and Mauritius, or Isle de France, in the Indian Sea, were the principal stations of the French in the East. In 1744, when war broke out between France and England, the hostilities which were being carried on in the western hemisphere by the principals were continued in the eastern by their colonists. La Bourdonnais, Governor of Mauritius, and Dupleix, Governor of Isle de Bourbon, commanded for the French; and on the English side, at the beginning of the war at least, there was no commander capable of holding his own against them. Madras was taken by an insignificant force, and the efforts of the British officers who were sent from Europe to the assistance of the colonists were frustrated by the superior tact and ability of the French. It seemed as if the remaining settlements must fall into the enemy's hand, for Dupleix (La Bourdonnais had returned to France, and died there) had established alliances with the native princes, and had almost persuaded them the British were an unnecessary evil which ought to be abolished, when unexpectedly a man arose and burst forth into fame, who was destined to overthrow all other European power than the British in India, and to build up a great part of that vast empire which the British have founded in those parts beyond sea.

This man was Robert Clive, the son of a Shropshire gentleman, and a clerk or writer in the East India Company's service in the Madras presidency. He was nineteen years of age when the war broke out between England and France, and being obliged, on account of the scarcity of officers, to serve as one, he soon became known as a daring and skilful soldier. He had been taken prisoner by the French, and had escaped in a way which by its boldness had established a reputation for him, and it was seen that he was a commander ready-made and well skilled in the peculiar ways of the native people.

The first occasion on which he greatly distinguished himself was when he surprised Arcot with a force of 500 men, less than half of whom were Europeans. Arcot was the capital of Chunda Sahib, the native prince in league with Dupleix, and who was at the time besieging Trichinopoly, a dependency on Madras. To relieve Trichinopoly, Clive, having accepted a captain's commission, and renounced commerce, marched swiftly to Arcot, carried it without striking a blow, and possessed himself of the citadel and all the stores. He entrenched himself in the citadel, created the diversion he wished for from the besieging army at Trichinopoly, and stood a siege himself from a force of 10,000 men, of whom more than his own strength were Europeans. After repulsing repeated attempts of the enemy to storm, he sallied out upon them, effected a junction with a force of Mahrattas and a few Europeans which had come from Madras, and gained a complete victory; not only routing the troops, but capturing the military chest and all the artillery.

Clive relieved Trichinopoly, and a second time defeated the son of Chunda Sahib with a great overthrow; then, turning his arms against the French, compelled them to surrender at Seringham, an island in the river Cauvery, so that their possessions in India were reduced to very small dimensions. In 1754 they signed a peace with the English local government, by which they gave up all the points on which they had insisted. Dupleix was recalled, and Mahommed Ali, the friend of the English in India, was acknowledged by them to be Nabob of the Carnatic. In 1755, when Clive, who had been in England on account of his health, was about to return to India, the king's government gave him the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, and the East India Company made him governor of Fort St. David, at which place he arrived on the 18th of June, 1756-a day ever memorable in Anglo-Indian annals as the day of "the black hole at Calcutta." Surajah Dowlah was the Nabob or Viceroy of Bengal, owning a nominal allegiance to "the king of kings at Delhi, but, as a matter of fact, independent of him. This man was actuated by the most intense ill-will towards the English, and he took occasion of their strengthening their works at Fort William (Calcutta), to pick a quarrel with them. Without formal notice of his intention, he appeared before the place with a force to which the garrison had nothing to oppose, though they did make a stand for two days. At the end of that time the place surrendered, and Surajah Dowlah swore to give his prisoners their lives, though he confiscated their property, and forbade any Englishman ever again to set foot in his dominions.