parallel perpendicular retiring planes. The tops of the steps are horizontal retiring planes. In Fig. 31 the lid of the box from its position is an inclined retiring plane.

We advise the pupil now to make himself familiar with the following fixed principles relating to retiring lines and planes:1. The Line of Sight, or, as it is sometimes called, the horizontal line, represents the height of the eye in the picture, which, when we come to the explanation of these terms, we will mark in the illustrations H L (see Figs. 28 and 29).

2. The Point of Sight, marked P 8, is the point opposite the eye in the picture, and is consequently upon the line of sight. 3. The Station Point is the place where the spectator is supposed to stand when viewing the object represented; marked s P.

4. A Ground Plan is the horizontal extent of the object when drawn upon the ground.

5. The Vanishing Point is that point in the plane or surface of the picture, where retiring lines if produced or continued, would meet or terminate; marked v P.

6. All retiring lines have vanishing points.

7. All horizontal retiring lines have their vanishing points upon the line of sight.

8. All parallel retiring lines have the same vanishing point.

each way within a greater angle, he would have to turn his head, and consequently he would require two or more points of sight; this is only allowable in panoramas (viz., long pictures generally placed upon upright rollers, and so drawn out as a ribbon would be from a reel), when the view of a country for any number of miles in extent is exhibited; the proper or more convenient distance from the object is, when it is placed within an angle of from 20° to 25°.

Let a b, Fig. 25, be two objects to be drawn in the same picture; the distance from them at c would be the nearest approach we could make; then the angle a cb would be an angle of 60°. If we removed our position to d, then the angle would be much less, and more suitable for our picture.

We beg it may be understood that hereafter when we say drawing from Nature, we allude to all objects, trees, buildings, etc. Although buildings are not natural objects, yet they are included under this expression.

4th. Ground Plan. The best illustration of a ground plan is a map; it has nothing to do with heights or depths. Suppose the walls of a house were removed, and only the foundations left, we should then see the plan of the house.

5th. Vanishing Point (v P). If a line be drawn from the eye parallel to any original straight line of the object the point PS & VP b

Fig. 27 (a).

9. All horizontal lines which are parallel with the picture plane, are drawn parallel with each other, and the line of sight. 10. All horizontal retiring lines forming right angles with the picture plane, or with our position, have the point of sight, for their vanishing point.

11. All lines inclined with the horizon, and with the picture plane, have their vanishing points above or below the line of sight, according to the angle they form with the horizon, their vanishing points being always on a line perpendicular to the vanishing point upon the line of sight, to which they would have retired had they been horizontal.

Before going any further we will endeavour to explain the above fixed principles or definitions, taking them in their order. 1st. The Line of Sight, H L (horizontal line), is drawn parallel with the base of the picture, according to the height of the eye from the ground. If we are drawing a house from a higher point of view than when standing or seated on the ground, the line of sight will be higher in the former than in the latter case. 2nd. The Point of Sight (PS) is subject to the same conditions as to its height from the ground as the line of sight.

3rd. The Station Point (8 P) may be at almost any distance from the object that is most convenient; but observe, if too near, we get a distorted view of the object when drawing from Nature. Let the reader for a moment place himself in an upright positi In his head perfectly still, and turn his eyes to ; all that he can possibly see whilst so (sixty degrees), considerably oking at to make a pleasing picture, z. But if he included more objects,

the rig

where that line cuts the picture plane (or surface of the picture) is the vanishing point of that original line. When the pupil has read this, let him rise from his chair, and stand about eight or nine feet from the window, and look out upon the objects beyond. Suppose that a house is in sight, having one of its corners towards him. If he stood without moving from the position he has chosen, and took a long stick having a piece of charcoal, or something that will make a mark on glass, fastened to the end, he might trace the form of the house upon the glass in the same way as tracing a drawing through a piece of thin paper; he would then have made a true perspective drawing of that house upon the glass. This glass is the picture plane; the place where he stands when making the tracing is the station point. Now, supposing the retiring side of the building he is tracing is on the left as he looks at it, let him raise his left arm and hold it parallel to that retiring face or plare of the building, he will then be pointing to the vanishing point of the retiring face or plane, and all horizontal lines upon that plane would be retiring also, and consequently meet at the same vanishing point.

He might, for the sake of experiment, actually make a tracing on the window of one or more of the parallel retiring lines of the building, and at the same time make a mark upon the wall for the vanishing point. Then if he continue the traced lines on the glass he would eventually find that they will meet the mark upon the wall, that mark being the vanishing point; and he would also find that the mark upon the wall is on a level with his eye, on the line of sight. He would find also that if there were any other lines parallel with the window, these lines when traced would be parallel with the line of sight, and be drawn

horizontally on the glass. This explains all that is meant in
the definitions numbered 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. If there be any other
lines of walls or buildings to be seen through the window which
are at right angles with it, these lines have the point of sight
for their vanishing point; just as the retiring lines of the
covers of the books at A and B in Fig. 26, which are at right
angles to the edge of the table on which they are lying have
their vanishing point in the point of sight, while those that
are not at right angles to
the edge of the table, as at E
and F, have their vanishing
points to the right and left
of the point of sight. This
observation will explain Defi-
nition 10.

HL

b

same way with the other lines d ge hand ci. Now observe, if all these lines were produced towards the line of sight, H L, they would meet at the P S. The other parallel lines, k, l, m, etc., must be carefully arranged according to the principles we have already laid down in our introductory lessons. The pupil may naturally inquire if there are not some perspective rules for regulating the retiring horizontal distances of objects, as well as their heights. We answer, there are. We do not intend to avoid this question, but put PS and VP it off for the present, lest the pupil should become too early involved in technicalities that belong especially to geometrical perspectivea branch of drawing to be considered hereafter. With reference to the retiring lines of the pavement (Fig. 28), we have a fitting illustration in a railroad; probably the pupil has observed when standing on a railway bridge and looking down the line, that the rails as they retired. seemingly converged to a point in the distance; that point would be the vanishing

d

m

Fig.28

h

PS

Fig.29.

a

term used in reference to objects of rectangular form, such as the interior of a room, a cube, etc., when these objects are so placed that their retiring sides are at a right angle with the picture plane, P P, and the remaining sides are parallel to the same, as in Fig. 27 (a).

Angular perspective alludes to objects of the same form so placed that all the sides retire, as in Fig. 27 (b), which is the plan of a room in angular perspective, having one of its angles towards the picture plane P P, and its four sides retiring.

PS'

Parallel perspective is the more simple of the two, and easier to be understood, we therefore commence with that. The first example is a pavement (Fig. 28).

Draw the horizontal line, H L, and place upon it a point marked P s and v P (point of sight and vanishing point). The reason that it is both the point of sight and the vanishing point has been explained in Definition 10. Then mark the distance of a from P s, through a draw the line b c, and divide it in the points d and e; place the pencil on P S, and draw it over the paper through b to f, mark f, join bf, proceed precisely in the

Fig. 51

HL

point; therefore, in drawing lines so placed, our having a vanishing point renders the task much easier, and insures that which is so very desir. able, a truthful result. Let Fig. 28 be practised over and over again, until the various lines which compose it can be drawn with ease and readiness. Fig. 29 is the same, with the addition of a wall on the left. After the last example the manner of drawing it will be self-evident. Fig. 30, a flight of steps; the retiring edges of the steps are all drawn towards the P S. The other examples require no further explanation. Should

the pupil in going along with us through these lessons have made some failures, and found some difficulties, there is no doubt that most of them may be attributed to one great neglect which all beginners so readily fall into, that is, the not "marking in the distances" before they attempt to draw the lines. It is the common failing with the majority of beginners, that they attempt to draw the lines without first arranging their positions. We have said quite enough of the practical way of proceeding with the arrange ment of lines, but once more, let the attention of the pupil be ever directed to the "whereabouts" of the lines of his drawing.

*

M

opositions have each an object as well ally the case, and such is the case that appear. In our standard phrase preased. And the statement may be cierence to an object. Verbs in which no clear and obvious reference to an stare vorba that is, verbs the action of in, not; trans, across; eo, I go) Alfred sleeps, Alfred runs, Alfred rides, 4 untransitive verbs; because in each with the subject. But these and most v Day may become transitive by having an

ม

Alfred runs.

Object.

Voluspa & doop aloop Alfred runs a long way.

Alfred sings.

Alfred sings a fine song.

Contrasted with the indefinite article a, is another form, which bears the name of the definite article; that is, the. The is a reduced form of these. Consequently the refers to an object previously mentioned or known; as

Alfred reads THE writing;

he reads, that is, some writing known to the speaker.

We have already found a form of speech which qualifies nouns-namely, the adjective. We may therefore insert a suitable adjective in this lengthening form; thus:

reads the obscure writing and manuscript.

We have hitherto modified the predicate. Still more may it be modified. The verb reads may undergo a modification of import. Introduce the word soon:

SUBJECT.

Alfred

PREDICATE.

SOON reads the obscure writing and manuscript. Two other parts of speech may be introduced by inserting the words to me, as--

Alfred soon reads TO ME the obscure writing and manuscript.

Me is a pronoun, as we found he to be. Me, you see, holds the place of a noun. Me is the objective case corresponding to the nominative case I. Our pronouns, as you here see, have some diversities of case, for in them you find varying forms corresponding to varieties of meaning. The other word just addednamely, to, is called a preposition. The word preposition signifies, according to its Latin element, that which is put before; a preposition, then, is a word put before a noun; and it is put before a noun in order to modify its signification, or mark the relation in which the noun stands to another word, or to other words; e.g.—

where to, from, with, and of are prepositions.
In the ordinary list of the parts of speech stands the participle.
This word, of Latin origin, denotes the partaker (from pars, a
part, and capio, I take). The participle is so denominated
because it partakes of the qualities of the verb and the adjective.
Thus shining is a participle from the verb to shine. It may also
be employed as an adjective. Thus,

PARTICIPLE. The sun shining disperses the clouds.
ADJECTIVE. The shining sun dazzles the eyes.

The right of the participle to be accounted a separate part of speech has been contested not without reason. Perhaps less valid is the claim of the interjection. An interjection (inter, Croce in general have an object, then we must between, and jacio, I cast) is a sound of surprise, or sorrow, a praminatical formula; thus: -

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Alfred studying soon reads to me the obscure writing and manuscript.

1. Noun. 2. Participle. 3. Adverb. 4. Verb. 5. Preposition. 6.

Pronoun. 7. Article. 8. Adjective. 9. Conjunction.

The form is thus seen to comprise nine parts of speech. If the interjection, or exclamation, is to be reckoned a part of speech, it may be prefixed in the shape of Yes! Here, then, we find a condensed view of all the parts of speech, and in the remarks by which the view has been prefaced and prepared, lies the kernel of the entire English Grammar. If you have gone with me understandingly thus far, you will have no difficulty in following me to the end, for having developed these general facts and in Iain a little joint). A is principles, I have now only to take up each part of speech in

-iım alanda thun

Enccession, and, in connection with it, enter into such particulara as may appear desirable with a view to my object.

Before I close the chapter, however, I will add a few general remarks respecting the actual classification, which bears the name of the nine (or ten) parts of speech. The aim of the classification is to arrange under separate heads all the words of the English (or any other) language. Now a good classification has two qualities: first. it is exhaustive; secondly, it is distincb. It is exhaustive- that is, it comprises and places under some suitable head all the facts. It is distinctive-that is, it makes such clear and sharp distinctions as to place the several facts each under its own head, without confounding similar facts together, or putting under one head facts which may as properly stand under another head.

The classification under review is neither exhaustive nor distinctive. It is not exhaustive, for it leaves out the infinitive wood, which has as good a right to be called a part of speech as the participle. It is not distinctive, for the term adjective makes no distinction where a distinction exists, and the term participle makes a distinction where no distinction is required. Indeed, the classification is wholly unscientific, being based not on a principle, but on vague and general views. Something less objectionable may be offered in the following words.

(7)

(8) (9)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) And lo! Stanley rising quickly caused great wrath in the king. 1. Conjunction. 2. Interjection. 3. Noun. 4. Participle. 5. Adverb. 6. Verb. 7. Adjective. 8. Preposition. 9. Article. In the last example, one part of speech is omitted to exercise the mind of the student, who is also expected to effect the reduction of the proposition to the name of being and the name of action. Let the reader carefully study and analyse the following sentences

1. Propositions without an object. Birds sing. Cows graze. Rabbits burrow. Dogs fight. Children play. 2. Propositions with an object.

The sun lights the earth. The trees produce fruit. The rain waters the meadows. Storms purify the air. The universe proclaims its Author. Qualifying words may be added at will, as

3. Propositions with a subject and object qualified.

My young brother teased the little animals. Avaricious tradesmen overcharge all their goods. A diligent scholar learns all his lessons. I subjoin some fragments to be made into complete sentences::1. Propositions lacking subjects. aids his sick mother.

leads a blind man.
avoids bad company.

duty.
much money.

neglect their - cost

- promises a rich harvest. 2. Propositions lacking objects. Disobedient children deserve - The proud despise Cover- A bad child grieves- An honest debtor pays —

Thick clouds
Wise men

3. Propositions lacking verbs. The eldest sister- the younger ones. The father- his incorrigible son. Noisy boys the neighbourhood. The police public order.

Speech corresponds to the realities which it represents. Those realities are thoughts and things. Now, thoughts and things may be reduced to three classes:-1, Objects; 2, qualities of objects; 3, actions. Consequently, the essential parts of speech are the noun, the adjective, and the verb. But objects and their qualities are the same things differently viewed. We may therefore strike out qualities. Thus we have two classes leftcamely, the noun and the verb. Verbs, however, are the names of action, as nouns are the names of being. Hence language rebuke resolves itself into names. We may, then, declare that speech is made up of names. These names may be expanded and divided into 1, names of being, or nouns; 2, names of action, or verbs; and 3, names of qualities, or adjectives. Under the last head, or names of qualities, may stand other parts of speech, for the adrerb names the quality of the action of the verb, and the article names the extent in which the noun is to be taken. The term particles has not inappropriately been applied to adverbs and conjunctions, for. to a considerable degree they appear to be parts (particles-that is, little parts) or fragments of once existing nouns and verbs. If, however, our analysis of language into names of being and names of action is correct, then the sentence which, as given above, contains all the nine parts of speech, may be reduced to two; as,

Brave Nelson

Brave Nelson

Brave Nelson

SUBJECT.

PREDICATE.

fought

fought
fought

OBJECT.

the enemy. often fought the enemy. often fought the cruel enemy. Brave Nelson, defying danger, often fought the cruel enemy. Brave Nelson, defying danger and death, often fought the cruel enemy. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Brave Nelson, defying danger and death, often fought the enemy of his country.

1. Adjective. 2. Noun. 3. Participle. 4. Conjunction. 5. Adverb. 6. Verb. 7. Article. 8. Preposition. 9. Pronoun.

Other explanatory words or phrases might be added. Thus, to the subject might be appended the words sailing from England,

as

Brave Nelson, sailing from England, and defying danger, fought. Or you might qualify fought by the adverb successfully. You might also make the sentence compound by inserting after fought the words, and conquered; thus:

It may here be necessary, by anticipation, to inform the totally
uneducated student that, when the verb is singular it has s at
the end, when plural it is without s. The verb must be in the
singular number when the noun or pronoun connected with it
denotes only one person or thing; and the verb must be in the
plural number when the noun or pronoun connected with it
denotes more than one person or thing; e.g.—

SINGULAR: A boy loves; the house stands; the duck swims.
PLURAL: Boys love; houses stand; ducks swim.

The rule might be put in another form, as, when the noun has an
s (or is in the plural) the verb is without; and when the verb
has an s the noun is without.

GEOGRAPHY.-III.

NOTIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.

THE desire for nautical expeditions, which, under the excitement of commercial enterprise, had begun to spread among the nations, was restrained by the conquests of the Romans. These conquests, however, if they did not extend the boundaries of the known world, at least enriched the domain of geographical knowledge with new facts, and more exact than those which had been collected and taken for granted by the writers of former ages. The three Punic (Carthaginian) wars, the Illyrian war, the contests with the Gauls, the expeditions against Spain, and those of Etius Gallus into Arabia and Ethiopia, all contributed, in their turn, to give to this science a more positive character and more varied details. Polybius, about 150 years before the age of Hipparchus, gave a description of the world which, notwithstanding his numerous errors, evinced remarkable progress in the knowledge of the globe. The new acquisitions of the Romans, and of Mithridates Eupator, the campaigns of Julius Cæsar in Gaul and in Britain, rendered accessible the knowledge of countries hitherto but partially explored, or altogether unknown. Posidonius, a Syrian, resident at Rhodes, endeavoured to correct the measurement of the earth's circumference formerly made by Eratosthenes. He observed that when the star Canopus, in the constellation Argo, became visible in the horizon of Rhodes, it was elevated seven degrees and a half above the horizon of Alexandria. He supposed these places to