they were made in mills. On the least reflection it may readily conjectured, that the double cuneiform shape is given to these stones without much labour, because they are so cheap; and as every country, at all times, with whatever other it may be engaged in war, can obtain them in sufficient quantity, no nation can have an exclusive trade in them. It is nevertheless difficult to discover the places whence they are procured; and in works which give an account of the different articles of merchandise they are not named. The best account with which I am acquainted, is that collected by my brother, and published in the Hanoverian Magazine for the year 1772. Shepherds, and other persons who gain little by their service, break the flint-stone merely by manual labour, and chiefly in Champagne and Picardy. Some years ago, Gilbert de Montmeau, a merchant at Troye, carried on the greatest trade with them, and sold them at the rate of five livres six sous per thousand. The Dutch always buy up large quantities of them, which they keep in reserve, in order to sell them when the exportation of them is forbidden by France, in the time of war. Savary, however, relates that the largest quantity and best stones come from Berry, and particularly the neighbourhood of St. Agnau and Meusne. I know also that a great many are made at Stevensklint in Zeeland', and exported from that country. In the year 1727, the chancery of war at Hanover sent some persons to learn the art of breaking flints; but after their return, it was given out that our horn-stone was unfit for that purpose. It is possible that those stones which occur in continued veins may be split easier in any required direction than those found in single pieces, as it appears to me that the latter are harder and more compact than the former. Perhaps the case is the same with flints as with vermilion, the preparation of which we endeavoured to learn from the English and Dutch, though from the earliest periods it had been made better in the very centre of Germany than anywhere else.
That stones were used at least in the middle of the sixteenth century, is confirmed by the account of an ingenious Italian, named Francis Angelerius. This artist had con
1 Chemnitz regrets that the largest and most beautiful pieces are broken in many thousand fragments, and afterwards sold for a trifle as gun-flints. -Berliner Beschäftigungen, p. 213.
structed a short piece of wood, to which he applied a wheel, and instead of a cock substituted a dog, which held the stone in its mouth, the whole so ingeniously made, that a person who appeared with it at a masquerade was arrested by the guard, because it was considered to be a real pistol1. I have thought it proper to mention this circumstance, because it proves that the wheel was then invented and known under the appellation of pistol. In old arsenals and armouries, large collections of arms with the wheel are still to be seen. I have inspected those preserved in the arsenal at Hanover. What I consider to be the oldest, have on the barrel the figure of a hen with a musket in its mouth, because perhaps they were made at Henneberg. A pistol of this kind was entirely of brass without any part of wood, and therefore exceedingly heavy. On the lower part of the handle were the letters J. H. Z. S. perhaps John duke of Saxony. A piece with a wheel, which seemed to be one of the most modern, had on the barrel the date 1606.
Together with fire-stones, properly so called, pyrites, which is sometimes named fire-stone, continued long in use. In the year 1586, under duke Julius of Brunswick, when abundance of sulphureous pyrites was found near Seefen, the duke caused it to be collected, and formed it himself into the necessary shape, though in doing so he often bruised his fingers, and was advised by the physicians not to expose himself to the sulphureous vapour emitted by that substance.
[The use of flint-locks to guns has, within the last few years, been almost entirely laid aside in this country; the percussion- or detonating-lock being substituted for it. The certainty and rapidity with which the discharge takes place, gives them a very great superiority. This ingenious invention belongs to a Scottish clergyman, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth, minister of Belkeloce in Aberdeenshire, but it has since received some great improvements, especially in the application of the copper cap, to which indeed may be attributed all its superiority.-Brande.]
1 Hippolytus Angelerius, in a work entitled De Antiquitate Atestinæ, p. 14, in vol. vii. of Thes. Antiquit. Italiæ.
ADULTERATION of wine, i. 245; an-
cients clarified their wine with gypsum,
i. 250; potters-earth used for clarifying
wine, ib.; Jacob Ehrni beheaded for
adulterating wine, i. 253; arsenical liver
of sulphur used for detecting metal in
wine, ib.; fumigating with sulphur,
i. 255; adulteration with milk, i. 256;
adulteration of wine in England, ib.
Air-chamber, when first applied to the
fire-engine, ii. 252.
Alum, i. 180; alum of the ancients was
vitriol, ib.; places where they procured
it, i. 182; use of the ancient alum to
secure buildings from fire, i. 184; in-
vention of the modern alum, i. 185;
alumen rocca, i. 186; the oldest alum-
works in the Levant, i. 187; the oldest
in Europe on the island of naria,
i. 188; origin of those at Tolfa or Civita
Vecchia, i. 190; at Volterra, i. 193;
Popes' exclusive trade in alum, i. 194;
oldest alum-work in Germany, i. 195;
the first in England, i. 196.
Apothecaries, i. 326; Greek and Roman
physicians prepared their own medi-
cines, i. 327; their employment in the
13th and 14th centuries, i. 329; phar-
macy first separated from medicine by
the Arabian physicians, ib.; medical
establishments in Europe formed after
that at Salerno, i. 331; English apo-
thecaries, i. 333; French, ib.; German,
i. 333-338; portable apothecary's shop
at the Byzantine court, i. 339; first
dispensatory, ib.
Aquafortis, first intelligible account of, i.
506.
Archil, i. 35; known to the ancients, i. 36;
art of dyeing with, brought, in 1300,
from the Levant, i. 38; account of the
family of the Oricellarii or Rucellai,
who made that art known in Italy, ib.;
trade of the Canary islands with, i. 39;
of the Cape de Verde islands, i. 40;
invention of Lacmus, 41.
Artichoke, i. 212; cinara of the ancients
the same with the carduus, i. 213;
Scolymus described, i. 215; not our
artichoke, i. 216; Cactus, what parts of
it were eaten, i. 219; our artichoke
known in the fifteenth century, i. 220;
origin of the name, ib.; opinions respect-
ing the country from which it was first
brought, i. 221.
Artificial ice, ii. 142; preserving snow for
cooling liquors, known to the ancients,
ib.; ice preserved for the same use, ii.
143; Nero's method of cooling water,
ib.; how cooled in Egypt, ii. 144; water
made to freeze in summer, ii. 146; art
of making ice at Calcutta, ib.; method
of cooling water mentioned by Plutarch,
ii. 147; earthen vessels used in Portugal
for cooling water, ib.; use of snow known
at the French court under Henry III.,
ii. 149; trade carried on with snow and
ice in France, ii. 150; cooling property
of saltpetre, when discovered, ii. 151;
drinking-cups of ice used in France, ii,
155; ice extensively used for œconomi-
cal purposes, ii. 158; machinery em-
ployed for cutting it, ii. 159.
Aurum fulminans, i. 509; of what com-
posed, ib.; invention of it obscure, ib.;
said to have been discovered by a Ger-
man monk, i. 510; Valentin's receipt
for preparing it, ib.; deprived of its
power by means of vinegar, i. 511.
Bankers, the oldest at Rome, ii. 5.
Bellows, wooden, i. 63; whether first in-
vented by Anacharsis, i. 64; bellows at
the oldest melting-houses driven by
men, ib.; leather and wooden bellows
compared, ib.; description of the latter,
i. 65; advantages of them, i. 66; in-
vented in Germany, ib.; the inventor
supposed to be Hans Lobsinger, Shell-
horn a miller, or a bishop of Bamberg,
i. 66, 67; introduction of them at the
mines of the Harz Forest, i. 67.
Bills of exchange, ii. 203; account of the
oldest, ib.; ordinance issued at Barce-
lona respecting them, ii. 204.
Black lead, ii. 388; names by which it is
known, ib.; ancient manuscripts ruled
with lead, ii. 389; plumbago, by whom
first mentioned, ii. 390; black lead pits
in Cumberland, ii. 392; in commerce,
called potloth, ii. 393; first pencils used
for drawing, ib.; black and red chalk,
ii. 394.
Bologna stone, ii. 429; description of, ii.
429-430; how rendered capable of
shining in the dark, ii. 431; discovery of
this, by whom made, ib.; preparation
of the stone concealed by the Italian
chemists, ii. 432; taught by Poterius, a
French chemist, ib.; luminous stone
from India mentioned by De Thou, ii.
433; other kinds of pyrophori, ii. 434.
Book-censors, ii. 512; reason of their
being established, ib.; books forbidden
and burnt before the invention of print-
ing, ii. 513; books of the Jews and Chris-
tians burnt, ii. 514; works of Arius and
Nestorius burnt, ib.; earliest instance
of books published by permission of
go-
vernment, ib.; mandate respecting
book-censors, ii. 516; bull of Alexander
VI. prohibiting books unless previously
examined, ii. 517; book-censors esta-
blished in France, ib.
Book-keeping, history of, i. 1.
Buckingham, duke of, the first person in
England who used six horses to his car-
riage, i. 76.
Buck-wheat, i. 425; not known to the
ancients, i. 426; introduced into Europe
the beginning of the 16th century, ib. ;
said to have been brought from Asia,
ib; conjectures respecting other names
given to it, i. 428; when cultivated in
England, ib.; account of a new species,
ib.; sows itself in Siberia, i. 429; diffi-
cult to be cultivated, i. 430.
Butter, i. 499; whether known to the
Hebrews, i. 500; passage in Proverbs
respecting it wrongly translated, ib. ;
oldest mention of it in Greek writers,
ib.; known to the Scythians, ib.; used
by the Lusitanians instead of oil, ib.;
elephants drank it, ib.; anecdote re-
lated by Plutarch, i. 503; invention of
butter ascribed by Pliny to the Ger-
mans, i. 504; uses to which butter was
applied by the ancients, i. 506, 507;
butter of the ancients was fluid, ib.;
scarce in Norway during the ages of
paganism, i. 508.
Camp-mills, ii. 55; invention ascribed to
the Germans, ii. 56.
Canary-birds, i. 32; when known in Eu-
rope, ib.; flew from a ship wrecked on
the coast of Italy to Elba, where they
multiplied, ib.; trade with them, i. 33;
Canary seed, where first cultivated,
i. 34; use of, might be extended, i. 35.
Carp, history of, ii. 46; Cassiodorus the
oldest author who uses the term carpa,
ii. 51; origin of the name, ii. 52; carp
supposed to have been first found in the
southern parts of Europe, ib.; known
in England, ii. 53.
Catalogues of books, ii. 522; first printers
printed books at their own expense, ib.;
when bookselling became a distinct
business, ib.; catalogues first printed,
ii. 523; account of some of the earliest,
ii. 524; rapid increase of catalogues, ii.
527; Bohn's guinea catalogue, ib.
Cauliflower, brought from the Levant to
Italy, ii. 345.
Cheese known earlier than butter, i. 502.
Chemical names of metals, ii. 23; given
first to the heavenly bodies, ib.; nomi-
nation of metals after the heathen
deities, ii. 24; astrological nomination
known to the Brachmins in India, ii.
26; origin of the characters by which
the planets are expressed, ii. 27; those
by which the metals are signified, ii. 28;
list of metals known at the present day,
ii. 31.
Chimneys, i. 295; no traces of at Hercu-
laneum, i. 296; principal writers on
their antiquity, i. 296, 297; passages in
Greek authors supposed to allude to
them, i. 297-299; in Roman authors,
i. 299-301; houses of the ancients had
no chimneys, ib.; in what manner they
warmed their apartments, i. 305; de-
scription of the stoves used in Persia,
ib.; derivation of the word chimney,
i. 308; houses of the ancients kept
warm by pipes, i. 309; Winkelmann's
description of stoves found in a ruined
villa, ib.; no chimneys in the 10th, 12th
and 13th centuries, i. 312; oldest ac-
count of chimneys in an inscription at
Venice, i. 313; first chimney-sweepers
in Germany came from Savoy and
Piedmont, i. 314; chimney-sweeps at
Paris Savoyards, ib.
Clocks and watches, history of, i. 340;
clocks known in the eleventh century,
i. 346; first public clock at Padua,
i. 351;
when in use among private per-
sons, i. 354; first mention of watches,
ib.; history of clocks and watches, by
Barrington, i. 355; Queen Mary's
watch, i. 362; Sir Richard Burton's,
ib.; letter on the watch said to have
belonged to Robert Bruce, i. 364; Har-
rison's invention, i. 368; Arnold's
chronometer, i. 370.
Coaches, i. 68; covered carriages at Rome,
ib.; women only rode in carriages at the
beginning of the 16th century, i. 70; use
of covered carriages forbidden, ib.; order
of Julius duke of Brunswick, forbidding
his vassals to ride in carriages, i. 72;
French monarchs rode on horseback in
the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, i. 74;
citizens' wives at Paris forbidden to use
carriages, ib.; Henry IV. had only one
coach, i. 75; whirlicotes, the oldest car-
riages used by the English ladies, ib. ;
coaches first known in England, i. 76;
when introduced into Italy, Spain, Swe-
den, and Russia, ib. ; origin of the word
coach, i. 77; berline, invention of, i. 78 ;
first coaches let out for hire at Paris,
i. 79; hackney-coaches first established
at London, i. 81; number of coaches in
some of the principal cities of Europe, ib.
Cobalt, i. 478; is melted with siliceous
earth and potashes to a blue glass called
smalt, ib.; ground smalt, or powder-
blue, ib.; cobalt not known to the an-
cients, ib.; reason why Lehmann and
others think that the ancients used
smalt, i. 481; Gmelin's experiments on
the blue of the ancients, ib.; origin of
the name cobalt, i. 483; first colour-
mills in Germany for grinding smalt,
i. 484; smalt not mentioned in books
till a later period, i. 486; the oldest
description found in the works of Birin-
goccio, ib.
Cock-fighting, ii. 473; reflections on, ib.;
antiquity of, ib.; quail-fighting among
the Romans, ii. 474; cock-fights and
quail-fights mentioned by Solon, ii. 475;
Romans employed partridges for fight-
ing, ib.; cock-fighting instituted by
Themistocles, ib.; ascribed to Miltiades,
ii. 476; mentioned by ancient authors,
ii. 477-479; oldest information about
cock-fighting in England, ii. 481; this
pastime forbidden, ib.
Cork, i. 318; properties of, ib.; account
of the cork-tree, i. 319; known to
the Greeks and Romans, ib.; cork
used by the ancient fishermen as floats
to their nets, i. 321; anchor-buoys
made of it, ib.; Romans made soles of
it, i. 322; cork jackets, antiquity of,
ib.; ancient methods of closing up wine-
casks and other vessels, i. 323; cork
stoppers, i. 324; various substitutes for
corks, i. 325, 326.
Corn-mills, i. 147; earliest methods of
grinding corn, ib.; the oldest hand-
mills, ib.; cattle-mills, i. 148; water-
mills, i. 151; mills constructed at Rome
by Belisarius, i. 154; invention of float-
ing-mills, i. 155; of wind-mills, i. 158;
difference between German and Dutch
wind-mills, i. 160; bolting-machinery,
when invented, i. 161; bolting-cloth,
i. 162; invention of barley-mills, i. 168;
anecdote of a feudal lord, i. 170.
Cryptography, when invented, i. 106.
Diamond, when first used for writing on
glass, ii. 87.
Diving-bell, i. 111; ancient divers, ib.;
principles explained, i. 113; earliest use
in Europe, ib.; described by Lord Bacon,
i. 115; cannon fished up by it from the
wreck of the Spanish Armada, ib.; old
inventions, i. 117; Dr. Halley's diving-
bell, i. 118; Triewald's improvement,
i. 119; when employed in civil engineer-
ing, i. 121; apparatus for walking at the
bottom of the sea, i. 122.
Embroidery, antiquity of, i. 415.
Enamel, i. 132.
Etching on glass discovered by Henry
Schwanhard, ii. 88; process which he
employed, ii. 89.
Etruscan vases, colours of, produced by
calx of iron, ii. 239.
Exclusive privilege for printing books, ii.
518; oldest privilege known, granted
in 1490, ib.; account of some granted
in different countries, ii. 519, 520; pri-
vileges granted in England, ii. 520; in
Spain, ii. 521.
Falconry, i. 198; not a modern invention,
i. 199; birds of prey used in India and
Thrace, i. 201; employed also in Italy,
ib.; forbidden to the clergy in the sixth
century, i. 203; ancients bred other ra-
pacious animals besides hawks, ib.; fal-
conry common in the twelfth century,
ib.; Frederick II. wrote a book upon it,
ib.; ladies formerly fond of falconry,
i. 204; oldest writers on this art, ib.
Fire-engines, ii. 245; idea borrowed from
the common pump, ib.; sipho men-
tioned by Pliny, a fire-engine, ii. 246;
fire-engines at Rome, ii. 247; in the
East,engines employed to produce fires,
ii. 249; Greek fire, ib. ; fire-engines in-
troduced into Germany uncertain, ii. 250;
first mentioned in the building accounts
of Augsburg, ib.; fire-engines at Nu-
remberg,ii. 251; fire-engines very imper-
fect in the seventeenth century, ii. 252 ;
air-chamber, when added, ib.; improved
engines made by Leupold, ii. 253; Dutch
improvements, ii. 255-256; pipes for
conveying water not unknown to the
ancients, ii. 256; fire-engines, when
introduced at Constantinople, ii. 257.
Floating of wood, i. 454; what gave rise
to this invention, i. 455; wood floated
by Solomon for the temple at Jeru-
salem, i. 456; wood transported on
water by the Romans, ib.; earliest ac-
count of floating wood in Germany, i.
458; in France, i. 459, 460.
Forks, ii. 407; Greeks and Romans had
no name for them, ii. 408; Romans
often used ligula instead, ii. 409; forks
not employed by the ancients, ib.; meat
cut by a carver, ii. 410; forks not in use
among the Chinese, ib.; forks supposed
to be found among the ruins of a Roman
town, ii. 411; when first known in
Italy, ib.; forks and spoons still rarities
in some parts of Spain, ii. 413; table
knives, when introduced among the
Highlanders, ib.; English, Dutch, and
French have adopted the Italian names
forca and forchetta, ib.; German word
gabel of great antiquity, ii. 414.
Foundling hospitals, ii. 434; reflections
on child-murder, ib.; no law against it
formerly in Christian states, ii. 436;
children exposed by the ancients, ii. 437;
permitted in Greece but not at Thebes,
ii. 438; when prohibited by the Romans,
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