THE FARM WATER SUPPLY

HENRY N. OGDEN, C.E.

Member, Public Health Council and Professor of Sanitary Engineering, Cornell University

There are many aspects of the question of a farm water supply which might be treated, even in a bulletin of the Department of Health, for water is so absolutely necessary for existence and an abundant supply is so essential for domestic health and comfort, that almost any phase of a water supply might properly be considered a matter of health. But there is room here only for the briefest reference to one or two.

First, a water supply, under pressure, in the house is today a sign of an enlightened, progressive farmer. Of course, a farm may be successfully operated without a home water works. Crops of hay may for a time be taken from a meadow that is never ploughed up nor fertilized. But good farmers know that any crop of this sort means a gradual loss in soil fertility and, in the long run, such a method of working the land does not pay. In much the same way, it has come to be known that the home life on the farm must be made pleasant and attractive if the farm life is to hold the younger generation. Fifty schools of domestic science and colleges of agriculture devote a great deal of time to the general subject of making farm life easier and more attractive. First in importance in this regard is a pressure water supply. The old well may furnish enough water to sustain life, just as the spade and hoe may furnish enough crops to live on, but the inconvenience, discomfort and toil needed to carry water from well to house are so great that such a well supply today stamps that farm where only the well furnishes water as belonging to a man who has been standing still, a man of a past generation, a man who in his eagerness to make the most of his fields has forgotten also to make the most of his home.

Nor should the direct effect of an abundant water supply on the health of the family be overlooked. Frequent bathing is unquestionably a factor in general healthfulness, and the invitation of a bathroom with hot and cold water ready for use is in marked contrast to that of a dirty washtub on the floor with the water in a pail brought from the kitchen. Even washing the hands is made easier when a wash basin is always ready and the importance of dirty, that is, infected fingers in conveying disease is more and more being appreciated. The very outlook on life, its interests and values, and the need for rest and play are modified by the existence of a bathroom in a

house, by the opportunities it offers for changes of garments and for removing the evidences of hard physical toil.

Second, in New York State, a suitable supply of water for delivery to the house can generally be found. To secure such a pressure supply two ways are open. The water may be found in a spring or brook, on a hillside back of the house and piped down, as is so often done for the trough in the barn yard. Or, the only water available may be in a river, pond or well below the house which must be pumped up. Both ways may involve the construction of a small dam to meet the summer's needs, and both will involve the construction of a pipe line from the source of supply to the house. A pumped supply means also a tank in the attic or on a tower outside or even on a hill if one is convenient; or the tank may be in the cellar, with air under pressure in the tank to force the water up in the pipes. How it is done is not so important as that it shall be done and every house being in a different location, every water supply has to be considered by itself. A few general facts, however, may be stated.

The builder must be sure that there is plenty of water at times of low flow, before a long pipe line is laid. When water is carried to the house by the pailful very little is used, but when it can be had by opening a faucet the amount used is surprisingly increased. As an indication of the amount needed for a single family, if the flow is measured, it may be said that unless the flow is at a rate of two quarts a minute (taking five minutes to fill a ten-quart pail), the supply will be found inadequate. In case of springs, particularly, measurements of flow should always be made.

It may be that the flood flow of the spring or brook is abundant but that a storage dam seems necessary. A pond 20 feet wide and 200 feet long will be drawn down by the consumption from it and by evaporation, nearly three feet, if the pond receives no additional water during that time. Such a pond could furnish a water supply if a dam could be built to form the pond with a depth greater than three feet as a minimum. Springs are very deceitful in the amount of water they furnish, and are generally overestimated. They need in most cases a reservoir for storage, so that at least the night flow can be saved. Often drain tiles from the surrounding ground to the reservoir help greatly to increase the amount of water.

Pumps can be had in many forms. Even a hand pump is better than carrying water in a pail, but it is far better to pump by some other power. Gasolene, hot air, steam, electricity and water falls are all possible, depending on local conditions for the choice.

The tank in the house, or outside, ought to hold about 10 barrels in

order to pump only once a day, and since such a tank weighs, when full, nearly two tons, the supports must be carefully looked after.

The sizes of pipes to be used are important. If there is any idea of using the water in case of fire for fire streams, then nothing less than a pipe 4 inches in diameter should be used. Otherwise, when the pipe runs from a brook or spring above the house, a 3/4" pipe may serve if the drop is at least 200 feet; if less than 200 feet, a 1" pipe should be used. In pumping into a tank, a large enough pipe is important in order to hold down the resistance due to pipe friction, and while for a short distance a 34" pipe might answer, if the pipe is 1,000 feet long or more, nothing smaller than a 1" pipe should be used. Hydraulic rams can often be used where there is plenty of water and a small fall, to make the water do its own pumping and a ram costs less than any other kind of pump.

Third, the luxury of running water in a house must be paid for. Of course it all costs money, but the cost is a variable quantity depending both on the natural advantages and on the skill and economy of the man who installs the system. The bathroom furnishings may cost large sums, but a plain white enamelled bath tub, a hand basin and a closet may be bought for about $40. Piping and labor costs are uncertain items, but the total cost, including the hot water tank in kitchen and with the piping to and from the stove, ought to cost between $100 and $150.

The supply line is essential and its cost is generally a large item. Sometimes, however, tile pipe can be used for part of its length with a considerable saving, especially for a fire line. It is always worth while to compare the cost of a 4" cast iron line with that of a 1" wrought iron line, since a fire hydrant in the yard or in the house is almost better than insurance. In no case does it pay to try to save money by using a pipe that is too small. A dam may be of wood, stone, or concrete, and its cost depends very largely on the ingenuity of the constructor.

Finally, the water must be of a good quality. While a sufficient quantity of water supply is essential, it must not be forgotten that the quality of water used for domestic purposes is even more important. Surface water is usually subject to pollution and there is always danger from an impure water supply, even when the impurity is recognized and a separate well or spring water is supposed to be used for drinking. There is often therefore a choice to be made between an impure surface water in unlimited amount, and a pure spring water or a good well water in small quantity. In such a case it may be that a sand filter to purify the surface water will be the best solution. Or, if the water is always clear

but is organically polluted, it may be that safety can be secured by the use of a solution of chloride of lime.

Sometimes it may prove economical for two or three neighbors to combine in the construction of a long pipe line or of a pumping plant or of a dam and reservoir.

But the point of importance, and the matter to be emphasized is that a pressure supply of water from faucets in every farmhouse is a reasonable demand, not only on the part of wives and mothers whose. comfort and convenience are so largely increased thereby, but also on the part of the health authorities of the town and state, because the introduction of each new pressure supply tends to increase the healthfulness as well as the comfort of the household installing such a supply.

DISPOSAL OF HUMAN EXCRETA AND SEWAGE OF THE COUNTRY HOME

THEODORE HORTON, C. E.

Director, Division of Sanitary Engineering

PART I

A sanitary method of disposal of excreta must answer the following requirements:

(1) It should not give rise to a nuisance, i. e. should not offend the senses in any way.

(2) It should not be a menace to health, i. e. not be a means of transmission to human beings of any disease germs which may be present in the excretal discharges.

(3) It should be located conveniently to the house.

(4) It should be free from esthetic objection in regard to its location, condition during use, or manner and means of maintenance.

(5) Its operation should not be affected by freezing weather. With reference to the second requirement, which is by far the most important from our viewpoint, it should be clearly and in a practical way kept in mind that human excreta, or wastes or wash water containing the same, are potentially very dangerous on account of the possible presence of disease germs.

Although there may be other conceivable means of transmission of disease germs present in human excreta than those mentioned, the only ones of any practical importance, are dissemination by flies, pollution of the water supply and direct contact. The practical application of this means that our system of disposal of human excreta or sewage must be

protected against fly transmission by proper screening; that our disposal devices, whether privies, cesspools or sewage disposal works must be located so that they will not pollute a well or stream used for drinking purposes or, conversely, that our water supply must be located so that it will not be subject to contamination from this source; and that the privy, cesspool or other devices must be cleaned and cared for in such manner that infection is not transmitted through direct or indirect contact with the human excreta.

With reference to the third requirement, it is obvious that if the method of disposal is of the privy type it should be located conveniently to the house. This is particularly important with reference to winter conditions for if this convenience is not attained there may follow serious neglect of daily hygienic habits which is particularly important with children.

The fourth requirement, i. e. freedom from esthetic objections, implies not only the location of the privy or other structure, so as to have it secluded and unobtrusive to the view, but also the selection of such method or type as will not require any objectionable labor or means or method of maintenance. Thus if the privy method is used it should be of a type that will not require objectionable labor such as the handling of the excreta in pails or with shovels or in any other manner whereby a person must come into contact with the material, and especially not involving the soiling of implements or utensils used in cleaning. If the privy is of the removable pail type the pail should be of durable metal and not of wood, should be of convenient size and should be provided with handles for conveniently removing it to the place of final disposal. Perhaps no other more objectionable feature seems to be inherent in more of the types or methods of excretal disposal that have been proposed from time to time than this esthetic one, and it is the belief of the writer that it is futile to expect the farmer or other rural home owner to install and maintain a system that involves any very objectionable handling of human excreta.

There may be considered in general two distinct methods of disposal of sewage, the dry system and the water carriage system. The dry system does not require a water supply, and is typified by the ordinary privy, either of the dug type or the removable receptacle type, and is generally applicable for use at the country home where the number in the family is small and where economy is a consideration. The water carriage system, serving the bath, toilet, wash basin, sink, etc., requires an ample supply of running water in the house delivered under pressure, and is applicable only where soil conditions, topography, area of land, etc., are favorable.