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6 by 2 The slates called doubles are so called from the smallness of their size, and are made from the fragments of the larger qualities as they are sorted respectively.

The ladies are similarly obtained, being in pieces that will square up to the size of such a description of slate.

which imbibes the least water; for the imbibed water not only increases the weight of the covering, but in frosty weather, being converted into ice, it swells and shivers the slate. This effect of the frost is very sensible in tiled houses, but it is scarcely felt in slated ones, for good slate imbibes but little water; and when tiles are well öglazed they are rendered in some measure, with respect to this point, similar to slate.' He adds, 'I took a piece of Westmoreland slate and a piece of common tile, and weighed each of them carefully; the surface of each was about thirty square inches; both the pieces were immersed in water for ten minutes, and then taken out and weighed as soon as they had ceased to drip, and it was found that the tile had imbibed about oneseventh part of its weight of water, and the slate had not imbibed part of its weight. Indeed the wetting of the slate was merely superficial, while the tile in some measure became saturated with the water. I now placed both the wet pieces before the fire; in a quarter of an hour's time the slate was become quite dry, and of the same weight it had before it was put into the water; but the tile had lost only about twelve grains of the water it had imbibed, which was, as near as could be expected, the same quantity which had been spread on its surface, for it was this quantity only which had been imbibed by the slate, the surface of which was equal to that of the tile. The tile was left to dry in a room heated to 60° of Fahrenheit, and it did not lose all the water it had imbibed in less than six days.' He adds further, 'that the finest sort of Westmoreland slate is sold at Kendal at 3s. 6d. per load, which will amount to £1 15s. per ton, the load weighing 2 cwt. The coarser sort may be had at 2s. 4d. a load, or £1 38. 4d. per ton. Thirteen loads of the finest sort will cover forty-two square yards of roofing, and eighteen loads of the coarsest will cover the same quantity; so that there is half a ton less weight put upon forty-two square yards of roof, when the finest sort of slate is used, than if it was covered with the coarsest kind, and the difference of expense only 3s. 6d. It must be remarked that it owes its lightness not so much to any diversity in the component parts of the stone from which it is split, as to the thinness to which the workmen reduce it, and it is not so well calculated to resist violent winds as that which is heavier..

Countesses are still a gradation in dimension above ladies; and duchesses still larger. The slate is extracted from the quarries as other stony substances usually are, that is, by making perforations between its beds, into which gunpowder is placed and fused. This opens and divides the beds of the slate, which the quarry men remove in blocks of very considerable size. These blocks are afterwards split by having wedges of iron driven between their layers, which separate the blocks into scantling, of from four to nine inches in thickness, and as long and wide as may be required. Some of the scantling, which is intended to be exported as such, is sawn to the sizes ordered, that is, the edges only of such pieces; for it is not necessary to use the saw to the horizontal stratum of the slate, as that can be divided nearly as correct by the above means, without having recourse to such a tedious process as the sawing of it would be.

For the purpose of sawing the slate, the works in Wales are provided with abundance of beautiful machinery, some of which is put in motion by steam, and others by water, which keep in action a vast number of saws, all sawing the scantlings of slate into pieces adapted to their several purposes.

The imperial slating for roofs is uncommonly neat; it is known by having its lower edge sawn, whereas all the other slates used for covering are chipped square on their edges only.

The patent slate is so called among the slaters from the mode adopted to lay it on roofs, as no patent was ever obtained for such a mode of slating. It was first brought into use by Mr. Wyatt, the architect. It allows of being laid on a rafter of much less elevation than any other kind of slate, and is considerably lighter by reason of the laps being so much more inconsiderable than is found to be necessary for the common sort of slating. This slating was originally made from that description of slates known as Welsh Rags. The slaters now frequently make it of Imperials, which gives to it still less weight, and renders it somewhat more neat in its appearance than by the former mode.

Of the Westmoreland slate.-Experiments have been instituted on this description of covering, as we have seen, by the late bishop of Landaff. That sort of slate,' says he, other circumstances being the same, is esteemed the best

A common plain tile weighs thirty-seven ounces, and there are used, at a medium, 700 to cover a single square of roof of 100 superficial feet. A pan-tile weighs seventy-six ounces, or four pounds and three-quarters; and 180 are required to lay on a single square. Both the plain and pan-tiles are commonly bedded in mortar; indeed the former cannot be well laid on a roof without it. The mortar for the bedding of either will be equivalent to one-fourth of the weight of the tiles. When a roof is to be covered with copper, or lead, it will depend upon what number of ounces of the metal it is determined to assign to each superficial foot of such covering. But for common lead or copper covering, supposing seven pounds of the former to the foot, and sixteen ounces of the latter, the

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Hence may be seen what each square of a roof sustains, and a careful builder may select such a covering as his building may be best I calculated to support. It will be noticed, too, how much the tiles exceed in their weight that of the other coverings. The pan-tile herein weighed was at the time perfectly dry, and is of the common sort made in and about London. The plain tile is taken at the weight assigned it in the learned prelate's paper before referred to. The pan-tile is equally adapted to imbibe water with the plain tile, hence a somewhat greater weight than is here taken may be supposed to be generally operating upon the roof, when loaded with such a covering.

All the several kinds before named partake of a similar mode, in as far as refers to the bonding or lap of one portion of the slate over another. The lap of each joint is generally equal to one-third of the length of the slate, and the slater selects all the largest in size, of the description about to be used, to be put on nearest the eaves of the roof. When the slates are brought from the quarry, they are not found in so square a shape as to be immediately fit to be put on a roof, but are prepared for that purpose by cutting and sorting. The slater, to effect this, picks and examines the slate, observing which is its strongest and squarest end. He then, by holding the slate a little slanting upon and projecting about an inch over the edge of a small block of wood, seating himself at the same time on something which is equal to it in height, begins and cuts away straight one of its edges. He then, with a slip of wood, gauges the other edge parallel to the same, and cuts off that also; after which he turns it round and squares the end. The slate is so far prepared, excepting it be the turning of his tool round and pecking through it, on its opposite end, two small holes, which are made for the nails to enter when he lays it on the roof. All the quarry slates require this preparation from the workman known as the slater. All slates are put on with nails or screws, and two are assigned to each slate at least. The copper and zinc nails are esteemed the best, by reason of their not being so susceptible of oxidation as the iron ones. The slaters, however, to prevent the destruction of their iron nails, have recourse to painting them; this they do by putting them in a tub containing white lead, rendered very fluid by excess of saturation with oil, and stirring them up and about till they are completely covered over, after which they are removed and spread out upon boards and left to dry. Since the general developements of chemistry, some of the

slaters have succeeded in plating over their iron nails with tin; but great address is necessary to succeed well at it; however, tinned nails are becoming more common, and will be found greatly cheaper than copper ones. The previous preparation necessary for laying slates on roofs, consists in forming a base or floor for the slates For the to lie compactly and safely upon.

doubles and ladies, boarding is essential, if it be expected to have a good water-proof covering to the roof. All that is required in the boarding for such slates is, that it be laid very even and the joints close, securing the boards by properly nailing them down on the rafters. When the boarding is ready, the slater examines it, and provides himself with several slips of wood, called tilting fillets. A tilting fillet is made about two inches and a half wide, three-quarters of an inch thick on one edge, and champered away to an arris on the other edge. These fillets he carefully lays and nails down all round the extreme edges of the roof to be slated, beginning with the hips if there be any, and, if not, with the sides, eaves, and ridge. When these are all done, he prepares for laying the slates, and begins the eaves first. For these he picks out all the largest slates, which he places regularly throughout, setting their lower edges to a line, and, when so placed, he secures them by nailing them down to the boarding. He then selects such slates as will form the bond to the under sides of the eaves. This part of the work consists in placing another row of slates under those which he has previously laid, so as to cross and cover all their joints; such slates are pushed up lightly under those which are above them, and are seldom nailed, but left dependent for their support on the weight of those above them, and their own weight on the boarding. The countesses, and all the other description of slates, when intended to be laid in a good manner, are also laid on boards. When the slater has finished the eaves, he strains a line on the face of its upper slates parallel to its outer edge, and as far from it as he deems sufficient for the lap of those slates which he intends to go on to form the next course; this course of slates being laid and nailed even with the line, and crossing the joints of the upper slates of the eaves. This lining and laying of the slates is continued till the slater gets up close to the ridge of the roof, he observing throughout to cross the different joints by the slates he lays on one above another. This is the method uniformly followed in laying all the different kinds of slates, excepting it be those which are called the patent slates, which will henceforth be explained. All the larger kinds of slate are found to lie firmly on what are called battens, in consequence of which they are frequently made use of, from their promoting a saving in the expense, which will on an average amount to about 20s. per square. A batten consists of a narrow portion of deal-wood about two and a half, or three inches wide: there are commonly three taken out flat-wise of a deal. When countesses are to be laid on, battens three quarters of an inch in thickness will be an adequate substance for them; but, for the larger and heavier kind of slates, inch battens will be

necessary. When a roof is to be battened for slates, the slater himself is the best person to fix them, as they are not placed at a uniform distance from each other, but so as to suit the length of the slates, and, as these vary as they approach the apex or ridge of the roof, it follows that the slater himself becomes the best judge where to fix the batten to best support the slates intended to lie on it. When they have been fixed by the carpenters he almost always finds it necessary to take them up and re-lay them. The nails used by slaters, as before observed, are of iron, copper, and zinc. They are of the description called clout-nails. A clout-nail consists in being made round on its shank, or driving part, with a large round and flat head. Clout-nails are made of several qualities, but those used by the slater are about an inch and a quarter long in the shank, and are termed eight-penny nails. The copper nails are considerably dearer than those of iron, or zinc, hence slating done by them is charged somewhat more per square.

The patent slating, as it is called, consists in selecting the largest slates, and those also of uniformity in their thickness.-The slates called imperials are those now taken for it. A roof, to be covered with this kind of slate, requires that its common rafters be left loose upon their purlins, as they must be placed so as to suit the widths of the slates, it being necessary to have a rafter under every one of their meeting joints. Neither battening nor boarding is required for these slates, and the quantity of rafters will depend on the widths of the slates; hence if they are of a large size very few will be required, and of course a great saving in the timber will take place, besides giving a much less weight in the roof. The work of covering by this kind of slate is commenced as before at the eaves, but no crossing or bonding is wanted, the slates heing uniformly laid, with the end of each reaching to the centres of each of the rafters, and are all butted up to one another throughout the length of the roof; the rafters being so placed as to come regularly under the ends of two of the slates: When the eave's course is laid, the slates composing it are all screwed down by two or three strong inch-and-a-half screws at each of their ends into the rafters under them. A line is afterwards strained about two inches from their upper edge, this being allowed as a lap for the course of slates which goes on above, the edges of which course being fixed straight with the line, and this lining laying with a lap and screwing down is continued till the roof is finally covered all over.After which the filleting is to commence; this consists in covering all the meeting joints of the slates which come on the rafters with fillets of slate bedded in glazier's putty, and screwing them down through the whole into the rafters under them. The fillets, to cover these kind of joints, are usually made about three inches wide, and as long as the slate they are intended to cover. They are solidly bedded in the putty, their joints lapped as are those of the slates; one screw is put in each lap, and one in the middle of the fillet; these fillets, are after being so laid, bedded and screwed down, pointed neatly up all

round their edges with more putty, and are painted over with a paint resembling the color of the slate, and hence the work is deemed to be finished.-The hips and ridges of such slating are frequently covered by fillets in a similar way, and have a very neat effect. But lead is the best covering for all hips and ridges of roofs, and it is not greatly dearer than covering them by this mode. Slating is done also in several other ways, but the principles before explained embrace the most of them; some workmen have shaped and laid their slates in a lozenge form. This kind of work consists in getting all the slates to a uniform size, and into the shape of a geometrical square; they are, when laying on the roof (which it is always necessary to have boarded for this work), bonded and lapped as the common slating is; observing only to exactly let the elbow or half of the square appear above each slate which is under it, and to be regular in the courses all over the roof. One nail or screw only can be used for such slating, hence it soon becomes dilapidated. It is commonly employed in places near to the eye, or where particular neatness is required. The patent slating may be laid so as to be perfectly watertight, with an elevation of the rafter considerably less than any other slate or tile covering; a rise of two inches in each foot to the length of the rafter is deemed an adequate rise for this covering, and this, for a rafter of fifteen feet, would be only two feet six inches, a rise in the pitch of a roof which at any height from the ground would be hardly to be perceived.

Of slater's tools.-They consist of a few only, and these are sometimes found by the master and sometimes by the men. The tool called the saixe is composed of tempered iron, about sixteen inches in length and two inches in width, somewhat bent at one end, and prepared for, and handled with beechen wood at the other.-This instrument is not unlike a large knife, except its having on its back a piece of iron, projecting about three inches from out of it, and drawn sharp to a point. With this tool, when ground sharp, the slater chips or cuts all his slates to the sizes he requires them for all the various purposes of his business. He has also a ripper, as he calls it; this tool is formed of iron about the same length as the saixe; it is very thin in its blade part, which is one inch and three-quarters wide, tapered somewhat towards its top, where it has a round head projecting over the blade on each side about half an inch, and having also two little round notches in the two internal angles at the intersection of the one with the other. There is a shoulder formed at the handle end of this tool, which raises it up above the blade, and which enables the workman to hold it firmly in his hand when in use. use of this tool is in repairs of old slating, as, by forcing its blade up under the slates, the projecting head catches the nail of the slate, which enters into the little notch at its intersection, and which enables the workman to pull it out, and which also at the same time loosens the slate, and allows him to take it away and insert another in its place, this is the principal use of the ripper, viz. the repairing of the old slating.

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The hammer of the slater is somewhat different in shape from the common tool of that description; it is on the hammer, or driving part, about five inches in height, bent on the top a little back, and ground to a tolerable sharp point, its lower or flat end being about threequarters of an inch in diameter, and quite round. On the side of the driving part is a small projection, made with a notch in its centre, and which is used as a claw to draw or extract the nails, when nailing down the slates which do not drive satisfactorily. This kind of hammer is of great utility to the slater, and enables him to get through his new work with the greatest address. The tool called the shaving-tool is used for the purpose of getting the slates to a smooth face when so wanted, for skirtings, floors of balconies, or any other purpose to which slate may be required with a smooth face. It consists of a blade of iron, sharpened at one of its ends like a chisel, and is mortised through the centre of two round wooden handles, one of which is fixed at one end, and the other about the middle of the blade. The blade is about eleven inches long, and two inches wide, the handles to which are about ten inches long, so that they project four inches over on each side of the blade. The workman, in using this tool, takes it in both his hands, placing one hand to each side of the handle which is in the middle of the blade, allowing the other to come up and press against the wrists of both his arms, and in this way he works away all the uneven parts from off the surface of the slate, and gets it to a smooth face. This tool is well calculated for what it has to do, but it is a very uneasy kind of instrument to the workman, its whole purchase in its operation upon the slate being against his wrists, and which is sometimes attended with so much pain that he is obliged to give over his work. To avoid this inconvenience, he often puts flannel and other things over the handle which lies against his wrists; still a day or two's work, with this tool, will lame an inexperienced workman. The slater's other working tools consist of numerous chisels and gouges, together with files of all sizes, with which he finishes his slates for the better parts of his work into mouldings, and other forms, required for the different uses to which slate is applied.

The strength of slate is very great in compari son of any kind of freestone, as it is ascertained that a slate of one inch in thickness will sup port in an horizontal position as much in weight as five inches of Portland similarly suspended. Hence slates are now wrought and used for galleries and other purposes where strength and lightness combined are essential.

Slates are also fashioned into chimney-pieces, partaking of the different varieties of labor applied to marble; but it is incapable like it of receiving a polish, in consequence of which it will not get greatly into use for that purpose. It makes excellent skirtings of all descriptions, as well as casings to walls where dilapidations or great wear and tear is to be anticipated. It is capable of being fixed for these purposes with joints equally neat with wood, and may be

painted over if required, to appear like it. Staircases may be executed in slate, and will have an effect not unlike to black marble. The writer of this article has had a double gallery staircase leading to a suite of baths constructed of it, the effect of which was so good as by strangers to be generally taken and considered to be made of marble. Messrs. Warmsley and Milton, of Lambeth, are among the best slaters in London when slaters' work is required to be done on a large scale, or when any of the better departments of the working of slates are required, as they keep people competent to work it up into almost every shape, and with a neatness equalling works in marble.

Slaters' work is measured by the surveyor's as most artificers' work now usually is, and is afterwards reduced into squares, each square containing 100 feet superficial.

Slaters are allowed, in addition to the nett
dimensions of their work (when taking the mea-
sure of roofs) six inches for all the eaves and
four inches for the hips; this allowance is made
in consequence of the slates being used double
in the former case, and for the waste in cutting
away the sides of the slates to fit into the latter.
Some of these eaves, for instance, when rags or
imperial slates are used, require an addition of
nine inches to be allowed for the eaves, such
kind of slates being so much larger than the
size of most of the other kinds of slate now in
use. All faced work in slate skirtings, staircases,
galleries, &c, is charged by the foot superficial,
admeasuring it without any kind of addition.
The chimney pieces are made up and sold at
per piece, as is done by the masons. Slating
by the square to roofing varies as the size or
quality of the slate made use of, beginning, for
instance, with the doubles at about two guineas,
countesses, &c., two guineas and a half, Welsh
rags and imperials at three guineas and a half,
and Westmoreland, the dearest of all, at four
guineas and a half per square.
The present
prices of slaters' work, done in a good and
workmanlike manner, will be found to be equal
to the above charges. Galleries and other
slates worked up for such kind of purposes, and
fixed complete, will vary as the mouldings
about them do from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. per foot
superficial. Skirtings and linings of slate with
one face only worked, but squared and fixed up,
from 1s. 6d. to 2s. per foot superficial. From
these data, a tolerably correct idea may be
formed of the value of any kind of slating
which may be wanting, and a comparison may
be made of its value with the several other cover-
ings, &c., employed in buildings.

SLATTERN, n. s. Swedish slaetti. See
A woman negligent or dirty; not ele-

SLUT.

gant or nice.

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Beneath the lamp her tawdry ribbands glare, The new scoured manteau, and the slattern hair.

SLAVE, n. s. & v. n.

SLAVERY, n. s.

SLA'VISH, adj.

SLA VISHLY, adv.

Gay.
Fr. esclave; Teut.
sclav; Belgic slaaf.
Said to have its origi-

nal from the Slavi or SLA VISHNESS, n. s. Sclavonians, subdued and sold by the Venetians. One mancipated to a master; not a freeman; a dependant: the state of a slave: the derivatives corresponding.

Thou elvish markt, abortive, rooting hog! Thou that wast sealed in thy nativity

The slave of nature, and the son of hell.

Shakspeare. Richard III.
You have among you many a purchased slave,
Which, like your asses, and your dogs and mules,
You use in abject and in slavish part,
Because you bought them. Id. Merchant of Venice.

If my dissentings were out of errour, weakness,
or obstinacy, yet no man can think it other than the
badge of slavery, by savage rudeness and importunate
obtrusions of violence to have the mist of his errour
dispelled.
King Charles.

Those are the labour'd births of slavish brains; Not the effect of poetry, but pains. Denham. When once men are immersed in sensual things, and are become slaves to their passions and lusts, then are they most disposed to doubt of the existence of

God.

Of guests we make them slaves Inhospitably.

Wilkins.

Milton.

Milton.

}

The supreme God, t' whom all things ill
Are but as slavish officers of vengeance,
Would send a glist'ring guardian, if need were,
To keep my life and honour unassailed.
Slaves to our passions we become, and then
grows impossible to govern men.
Perspective a painter must not want; yet without
subjecting ourselves so wholly to it as to become
Dryden.

It

slaves of it.

Waller.'

Power shall not exempt the kings of the earth, and the great men, neither shall meanness excuse the poorest slave. Nelson

The condition of servants was different from what it is now, they being generally slaves, and such as were bought and sold for money. South.

To-morrow, should we thus express our friendship,
Each might receive a slave into his arms:
This sun perhaps, this morning sun, 's the last
That e'er shall rise on Roman liberty.

Addison's Cato.
Slavish bards our mutual loves rehearse
In lying strains and ignominious verse. Prior.
Had women been the makers of our laws,
The men should slave at cards from morn to night.

Husband, husband, cease your strife,
Nor longer idly rave, sir;
Though I am your wedded wife,

Yet I am not your slave, sir.

Swift.

Burns.

SLAVE COAST, a country of Africa adjoining to the Gold Coast and Ivory Coast, and situated between these and Benin. In politics, religion, customs, and manners, the natives greatly resemble those of the Gold Coast. In this country Europeans long had the greatest number of forts and factories for carrying on the disgraceful and inhuman traffic whence the country is named. By means of the negro factors this trade was carried on above 700 miles back in the inland country, whereby great numbers of slaves were

procured, as well as by means of wars amongst the negroes, fomented by Europeans.

SLAVE LAKE, a very extensive lake in the north-west part of North America, above 200 miles long, and about twelve broad. Its north bay is forty leagues broad, and six fathoms deep. The Dog-ribbed Indians inhabit the country on its north coast. It has an outlet called Mackenzie's River, which runs into the Frozen Ocean. The centre of this lake lies in about long. 115° 0′ W., lat. 61° 26' N.

SLAVE RIVER, a river of North America, which rises from Lake Athapesco, runs a course northwest by west, and falls into Mackenzie's River by

a mouth one mile broad.

SLAVE TRADE. The history of this enormous iniquity is happily now no longer connected with that of our own country: but that iniquity extensively exists, and it is said that our withdrawment from the trade has very little diiminished its extent, and rather increased than lessened its horrors. A sketch of its history will 1.herefore still be appropriate, and may be useful; we shall close with that of its abolition in this Country.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans that settled on the coast of Western Africa. The unfortunate Africans fled, and sought in the interior a retreat from the persecution of their invaders; but the Portuguese pursued them; entered their rivers, sailed up into the heart of the country, surprised the natives in their recesses, and carried them into slavery. The next step, which the Europeans found it necessary to take, was that of securing themselves fortified posts; of changing their system of force into that of pretended liberality; and of opening, by bribery and corruption, a communication with the native authorities. In the year 1481 the Portuguese erected their first fort at D'Elmina, about forty years after Alonzo Gonzales had pointed out the southern Africans as articles of commerce. The scheme succeeded: a permanent intercourse took place between the Europeans and Africans; and at length treaties of peace and commerce were concluded; in which it was agreed that the kings, on their part, should, from this period, sentence prisoners of war and convicts to European servitude; and that the Europeans should supply them, in return, with their luxuries. This laid the foundation of that commerce of which we are now to give a brief history.

One ostensible reason that was alleged for introducing Africans, in particular, as laborers into America and the West Indies, and placing them under European masters, was the hypocritical one of converting the heathen. It was very soon found, however, that usage utterly different from that which Christianity would have dictated was necessary, where people were transported by thousands, and made to labor against their will. A system, therefore, of cruel severity sprung up; so that when in after times the situation of master and slave came to be viewed, as it existed in practice between the two, the masters seemed to have attained the rank of deities or demons, and the slaves to have gone down to that of brutes. Hence, very early after the commence

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