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this matter left in its place, on the cavities of stone and other solid substances, out of which shells had been dissolved and washed away, being afterwards filled up less slowly with these different substances, whether spar or whatever else; these substances, so filling the cavities, can necessarily be of no other form than that of the shell, to the absence of which the cavity was owing, though all the nicer lineaments may not be so exactly expressed. Besides these, we have also in many places masses of stones formed within various shells; and these having been received into the cavities of the shells while they were perfectly fluid, and having therefore nicely filled all their cavities, must retain the perfect figures of the internal part of the shell, when the shell itself should be worn away or perished from their outside. The various species we find of these are, in many genera, as numerous as the known recent ones: and as we have in our own island, not only the shells of our own shores, but those of many other very distant ones, so we have also many species, and those in great numbers, which are, in their recent state, the inhabitants of other, yet unknown seas and shores. The cockles, mussels, oysters, and the other common bivalves of our own seas, are very abundant: but we have also an amazing number of the nautilus kind, particularly of the nautilus græcorum, which, though a shell not found living in our own or any neighbouring seas, yet is found buried in all our clay pits about London and elsewhere; and the most frequent of all fossil shells in some of our counties are the concha anomia, which yet we know not of in any part of the world in their recent state. Of this sort also are the cornua ammonis and the gryphitæ, with several of the echinitæ and others. The exact similitude of the known shells, recent and fossil, in their several kinds, will by no means suffer us to believe that these, though not yet known to us in their living state, are, as some have idly thought, a sort of lusus naturæ. It is certain that, of the many known shores, very few, not even those of our own island, have been yet carefully searched for the shell-fish that inhabit them; and as we see in the nautilus græcorum an instance of shells being brought from very distant parts of the world to be buried here, we cannot wonder that yet unknown shores, or the unknown bottoms of deep seas, should have furnished us with many unknown shell-fish, which may have been brought with the rest; whether that were at the time of the general deluge (see DELUGE), or the effect of any other catastrophe of a like kind, or by whatever other means, to be left in the yet unhardened matter of our stony and clayey strata.

Shells are subject to several imperfections, natural and accidental. The natural defects are the effects of age or sickness in the fish. Connoisseurs pretend to be able to distinguish a shell taken up with the fish alive from one found on the shores; they call the first a living, the second a dead shell; and say that the colors are always much fainter in the dead shells. Shells are also subject to other deformities, such as morbid cavities, or protuberances. When the shell is valuable, these faults may be hid, and

much added to the beauty of the specimen, without injuring it as an object of natural history, which should always be the great end of collecting these things. The cavities may be filled up with mastic, dissolved in spirit of wine, or with isinglass; these substances must be either colored to the tinge of the shell, or else a pencil dipped in water colors must finish them up to the resemblance of the rest; and then the whole shell being rubbed over with gum-water, or with the white of an egg, scarcely any eye can perceive the artifice: the same substances may also be used to repair the battered edge of a shell, provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And, wher the excrescences of a shell are faulty, they are to be taken down with a fine file.

On the coast of Guinea there is a prodigious quantity of that small species of porcelain which is used there as money; and there is another species all over white: the women make bracelets of these, and the people of the Levant adorn their hair with them." The coast of Zanguebar is very rich in shells; particularly large porcelains of great beauty; the nux maris, or sea-nut, and all the species of nautili. The Canary isles abound with the murices; Madeira abounds with echini; and the auris marina is nowhere more abundant. The Red Sea is beyond all other parts of the world abundant in shells; scarcely any kind is wanting there.

America affords many very elegant shells. Panama is famous for cylinders or rhombi, good porcelains, and a very fine species of dolium, or concha globose called the Panama purple shell. About Brasil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are murices and dolia of extreme beauty; also a great variety of porcelains, purpuræ, pectens, nerita, bucardiæ, or heart-shells, and elegant limpets. The isle of Cayenne affords one of the most beautiful of the buccinum kind, and the Midas ear is found principally about this place. Jamaica and Barbadoes have their shores covered with porcelains, chama, and buccina: and at St. Domingo there are almost all the same species of shells that we have from the East Indies; only they are not quite so beautiful. The pearl oyster is found also, but smaller than in the Persian Gulf. At Martinico there are in general the same shells as at St. Domingo. About Canada are found the violet chama; and the lakes of that country abound with mussels of very elegant pale blue and pale red colors. On the Great Bank of Newfoundland the principal kind are mussels of considerable beauty. About Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl shells. The island of Magellan furnishes us with a very remarkable species of mussels, and several very elegant species of limpets, particularly the pyramidal.

The shores of Asia furnish us with the pearl oysters and scallops in great perfection. About Amboyna are found the most beautiful specimens of the cabbage shell, the arrosoir, the ducal mantle, and the coral oysters, or echinated oysters: also a great variety of extremely beautiful mussels, tellinæ, and voluta; some fine buccinums, and the shell called the Ethiopian crown, in its greatest perfection. The dolia, the murices, and the cassandra, are also found on these

coasts in great beauty. Many elegant snails and screw-shells are also brought thence: and the serapion and spider shells. The Maldive and Philippine Islands, Bengal, and the coast of Malabar, abound with the most elegant of all the species of snails, and furnish many other kinds of shells in great abundance and perfection. China abounds in the finest species of porcelain shells, and has also a great variety of beautiful snails. Japan furnishes us with all the thicker and larger bivalves; and the isle of Cyprus is famous above all other parts of the world for the beauty and variety of the patella or limpet.

Our own British coasts produce also very pretty shells. About Plymouth are found oysters, mussels, and solens, in great abundance: and there, and on most of our other shores, are numbers of the aures marinæ and dentalia, with pectens, which are excellent food; and many elegant species of the chama and tellinæ are fished up about Scarborough, &c Ireland affords great numbers of mussels, and some very elegant scallop-shells; and the pholades are frequent on most of our shores. We have also great variety of the buccina and cochleæ, some volutæ : and, on the Guernsey coast, a peculiarly beautiful snail, called the Guernsey snail.

The ports of Marseilles, Toulon, and Antibes, in France, are full of pinnæ marinæ, mussels, tellinæ, and chama. The coasts of Bretagne afford great numbers of the concha anatiferæ and poussepieds; they are found on old rotten boards, on sea substances, and among clusters of sponges. The other ports of France, as Rochelle, Dunkirk, Brest, St. Maloes, and others, furnish oysters excellent for the table, but of the common kind, and of no beauty in their shells; great numbers of mussels are also found there; and the common tellinæ, the onion-peel oysters, the solens, and concha anatiferæ, are also frequent there. At Granville there are found very beautiful pectens, and some of the cordiform or heartshells.

The fresh water shells are found much more frequently, and in much greater plenty than the sea kinds; there is scarcely a pond, a ditch, or a river of fresh water in any part of the world in which there are not found vast numbers of these shells with the fish living in them. All these shells are small, and they are of very little beauty, being usually of a plain grayish or brownish color. Our ditches afford us chamæ, buccina, neritæ, and some patella; but the Nile and some other rivers furnished the ancients with a species of tellina which was large and eatable, and so much superior to the common sea tellina in flavor, that it was commonly named tellina, regia, i. e. the royal tellina. We have a small species of buccinum common in our fresh waters, which is very elegant, and always has its operculum in the manner of the larger buccina; a small kind of mussel is also very common, which is so extremely thin and tender that it can hardly be handled without breaking. The large fresh water mussel, called the horse mussel, is well known: and the size sufficiently distinguishes it from all other fresh water shells.

The Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain a great variety of shells, and many of very

remarkable elegance and beauty. The gulf of Tarentum affords great variety of purpuræ porcelains, nautili, and elegant oysters; the coasts of Naples and Sardinia afford the same, and with them a vast number of the solens of all the known species. Sicily is famous for a very elegant kind of oyster which is white all over; pinnæ marinæ and porcelains are also found in great plenty there, with telline and chamæ of many species. Corsica is famous, beyond all other places, for vast quantities of the pinnæ marinæ; and many other very beautiful shells are found there. (Lister. Hist. Conchyl.) About Syracuse are found the gondola shell, the alated murex, and a great variety of elegant snails, with some of the dolia and neritæ. The Adriatic Sea is less furnished with. shells than the rest of these seas. Mussels and oysters of several species are however found there, and some of the cordiform or heart-shells; there are also some tellinæ. About Ancona there are vast numbers of the pholades buried it stone (see PHOLAS); and the aures marinæ are particularly frequent alout Puzzoli.—(Bonani, Recreat. Ment. et Ocul).

The coasts of Spain and Portugal afford much the same species of shells with the East Indies, but they are greatly inferior in beauty. There are, according to Tavernier and others, some rivers in Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine water. About Cadiz there are very large pinnæ marinæ, and some fine buccina. The isles of Majorca and Minorca afford a great variety of extremely elegant shells. The pinna marine are also very numerous there, and their silk is wrought into gloves, stockings, and other things. The Baltic affords many beautiful species, particularly an orange-colored pecten, or scallop shell, which is not found in any other part of the world.

In collecting shells it is most advisable, whenever it can be done, to get those which have in them the living animals; because we shall thus obtain the natural history of the animals, and the shells themselves in their natural beauty, and the full glow of their colors. Shells should be also procured from the deeper parts of their resorts, and immediately after storms on the sea beaches and shores; because, by being much exposed to the sun, their colors fade, and they are liable to other accidents that injure them. To kill the fish that inhabits them M. Da Costa advises to give them a quick dip in boiling water, and, when they are cooled, to lay them in cold water till they are cleaned; and in this operation they should not be touched with aquafortis, or any other acid, nor exposed to the heat of the fire and sun. The art of polishing shells arrived but lately at its present state of perfection. Among the immense variety of shells, some are taken up out of the sea, or found on its shores, in all their perfection and beauty; with a natural polish superior to any thing that art could give. In others, where the beauties are latent, art is to be called in; and the outer veil being taken off all the internal beauties appear. Among the shells found naturally polished are the porcelains, or cowries; the cassanders; the dolia, or concha globose, or tuns; some buccina, the volutes, and the cylinders, or olives,

or as they are generally, though improperly, called, the rhombi. But there are several other genera, in which most of the species are taken up naturally rough and covered with a coarse outer skin. The naturalists insist upon having all their shells in their native and genuine appearance as they are found when living at sea; but the ladies will have all such polished. But both kinds of collectors ought to have the same shells in different specimens both rough and polished: the naturalist would thus, besides knowing the outside of the shell, be better acquainted with its internal characters, and the lady would have a pleasure in comparing the beauties of the shell, in its wrought state, to its natural coarse appearance. When a shell is to be polished, first examine whether it have naturally a smooth surface, or be covered with tubercles or prominences. A shell which has a smooth surface, and a natural dull polish, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with a piece of chamoy leather, with some tripoli, or fine rotten-stone, and it will become of a perfectly bright and fine polish. Emery is not to be used, because it wears away too much of the shell. This operation requires an experienced person, who knows where he is to stop; for in many of these shells the lines are only on the surface, and their beauty is easily defaced. A shell that is rough, foul, and crusty, or covered with a tartareous coat, must be left a whole day steeping in hot water; when it has imbibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with rough emery on a stick, or with the blade of a knife, to get off the coat. After this, it may be dipped in diluted aquafortis, spirit of salt, or any other acid: and, after remaining a few moments in it, be again plunged into common water. After this it is to be well rubbed with linen cloths, impregnated with common soap; and, when thus made perfectly clean, it is to be polished with the fine emery and a hair-brush. If after this the shell, when dry, appears not to have so good a polish as was desired, it must be rubbed over with a solution of gum arabic, which will add greatly to its gloss. When a shell is covered with a thick and fatty epidermis, as is the case with several of the mussels and tellinæ ; in this case aquafortis will do no service, as it will not touch the skin; then a rough brush and coarse emery are to be used; and, if this does not succeed, seal-skin, or, as the workmen call it, fish skin and pumice-stone are to be employed. When a shell has a thick crust, which will not give way to any of these means, the best way is to plunge it into strong aquafortis, till the stubborn crust is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris marina, the helmet-shells, and several other species of this kind, must have this sort of management: a long piece of wax must be provided, and one end of it made perfectly to cover the whole mouth of the shell; the other end will then serve as a handle, and, the mouth being stopped by the wax, the liquor cannot get in to the inside to spoil it; then there must be placed on a table a vessel full of aquafortis, and another full of common water. The shell is to be plunged into the aquafortis; and, after remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken out, and plunged into the common water.

The progress the aquafortis makes in eroding the surface is thus to be carefully observed; the point of the shell, and any other tender parts, are to be covered with wax, to prevent the aquafortis from eating them away; and, if there be any worm holes, they also may be stopped up with wax, otherwise the aquafortis would soon eat through in those places. When the coat is sufficiently eaten away, the shell is to be wrought carefully with fine emery and a brush; and, when it is thus polished as high as can be, it must be wiped clean, and rubbed over with gum water or the white of an egg. In this sort of work the operator must take care lest the aquafortis burn his fingers, or eat off the skin and the nails. These are the methods to be used with shells which require but a moderate quantity of the surface to be taken off; but there are others which require to have a larger quantity taken off, and to be uncovered deeper; this is called entirely scaling a shell. This is done by means of a horizontal wheel of lead or tin, impregnated with rough emery; and the shell is wrought down in the same manner in which stones are wrought by the lapidary, whom it will be proper to consult on such occasions. After the shell is cut down to a proper degree, it is to be polished with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten-stone, with a wooden wheel turned by the same machine as the leaden one. When a shell is full of tubercles, or protuberances, which must be preserved, it is then impossible to use the wheel; and, if the common way of dipping into aquafortis be attempted, the tubercles, being harder than the rest of the shell, will be eaten through before the rest is sufficiently scaled, and the shell will be spoiled. In this case a camel's hair pencil must be dipped in aquafortis; and with this the intermediate parts of the shell must be wetted, leaving the protuberances dry: this is to be often repeated; and the shell always to be plunged into water to stop the erosion of the acid, which would otherwise eat too deep. It is then to be polished with emery of the finest kind, or with tripoli, or the common polishing-stone used by the goldsmiths. The Dutch are very fond of shells, and are very nice in working them, but use the most violent methods, so as often to destroy all their beauty. They file them down on all sides, and often take them to the wheel, which destroys the very characters of the species. They even add some lines and colors with a pencil, afterwards covering them with varnish. so that they seem the natural lineations of the shell; the Dutch cabinets are by these means made very beautiful, but rendered totally useless as instructors in natural history. Connoisseurs are often imposed upon by these tricks to purchase them for new species.

Mother-of-pearl shells are 'composed of alternate layers of carbonate of lime and a thin membranaceous substance, which resembles exactly coagulated albumen in its properties. This membrane still retains the figure of the shell, after all the carbonate of lime has been separated by acid. Mother-of-pearl contains sixty-six carbonate of lime, and thirty-four membrane.'

Various are the means used by artists to brighten the colors, and add to the beauty of

shells and the changes produced by polishing in this manner are so great that the shell can scarcely be known afterwards to be the same it was; and hence we hear of new shells in the cabinets of collectors, which have no real existence as seperate species, but are disguised by polishing. To caution the reader against impositions of this kind, it is proper to mention the most remarkable species thus usually altered. The onyx shell or volute, called the purple or violet tip, which in its natural state is of a simple pale brown, when wrought slightly, or polished with just the superficies taken off, is of a fine bright yellow; and, when eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine milk-white, with the lower part bluish; it is in this state that it is called the onyx-shell; and it is preserved in many cabinets in its rough state, and in its yellow appearance, as different species of shells. The violet shell is a species of porcelain or common cowry, which does not appear in that elegance till it has been polished; and the auris marina appears in different forms, as it is more or less deeply wrought. In its rough state it is dusky and coarse, of a pale brown on the outside, and pearly within; when it is eaten down, a little way below the surface, it shows variegations of black and green: and, when farther eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within and without. The nautilus, when polished down, appears all over of a fine pearly color; but, when it is eaten away but to a small depth, it appears of a fine yellowish color, with dusky hairs. The burgau, when entirely cleared f its coat, is of the most beautiful pearl color; but, when only slightly eroded, it appears of a variegated mixture of green and red, whence it has been called the paroquet shell. The common helmet shell, when wrought, is of the color of the finest agate; and the mussels, in general, though very plain shells in their common appear ance, become very beautiful when polished, and show large veins of the most elegant colors. The Persian shell, in its natural state, is all over white, and covered with tubercles; but when ground down on a wheel, and polished, it appears of a gray color, with spots and veins of a very bright and highly polished white. The limpets, in general, become very different when polished, most of them showing very elegant colors; among these the tortoise shell limpet is the principal; it does not appear at all of that color or transparence till it has been wrought. That elegant species of shell called the junquilchama, which has deceived so many judges of these things into an opinion of its being a new species, is only a white chama with a reticulated surface; but, when this is polished, it loses at once its reticular work and its color, and becomes perfectly smooth, and of a fine bright yellow. The violet colored chama of New England, when worked down and polished, is of a fine milkwhite, with a great number of blue veins, disposed like the variegations in agates. The asses ear shell, when polished after working it down with the file, becomes extremely glossy, and obtains a fine rose color all about the mouth. These are some of the most frequent important changes wrought on shells by polishing; and many of the very greatest beauties of this part of the

creation must have been for ever hid, but for this method of searching deep in the substance of the shell for them.

Murine shells may be divided, according to Mr. Hatchett, into two kinds; those that have a porcellanous aspect with an enamelled surface, and when broken are often in a slight degree of a fibrous texture; and those that have generally, if not always, a strong epidermis, under which is the shell, principally or entirely composed of the substance called nacre, or mother-of-pearl. The porcellanous shells appear to consist of carbonate of lime, cemented by a very small portion of animal gluten. This animal gluten is more abundant in some, however, as in the patellæ. The mother-of-pearl shells are composed of the same substances. They differ, however, in their structure, which is lamellar, the gluten forming their membranes, regularly alternating with strata of carbonate of lime. In these two the gluten is much more abundant.

Mr. Hatchett made a few experiments on land shells also, which did not exhibit any differences. But the shells of the crustaceous animals he found to contain more or less phosphate of lime, though not equal in quantity to the carbonate, and hence approaching to the nature of bone. Linnæus, therefore, he observes, was right in considering the covering of the echini as crusta ceous, for it contains phosphate of lime. In the covering of some of the species of asterias, too, a little phosphate of lime occurs; but in that of others there is none.

Fossil and live shells of the same species differ, according to locality, distance, &c.-It has been remarked that the same fossil shells, found in places at a distance from each other, always exhibit some differences in their form, the deepness of their grooves, the degree of projection of their spines, &c. Mr. Basterodt affirms the same to be the case with living species, as he found that they do not exhibit the same characters in places separated at considerable distances from each other, or even in near localities, when the heat, humidity, nourishment, &c., are different. Hitherto but little attention has been paid to those local differences; hence it has happened that new species have been proposed, which were only varieties of known species. This fact is of great importance in a geognostical point of view.

The above writer seems also to have established that the same fossil species of shells are associated with different suites of species in different localities. The same species of fossil. shell may occur in deposits situated at considerable distances from each other, but in these different localities the species are not grouped with the same set of species. It is also a matter of observation that fossil shells of the same species are more and more numerous in different basins of the same era of formation, the nearer these basins are to each other. In illustration of this latter fact, Basterodt informs us, that, of the 270 species which he found in the vicinity of Bourdeaux, but eighty-two occur in the depôts of Italy, fifty-two around Paris, twenty-one in the tertiary basins of England, and only seventeen in the basin of Vienna in Austria.

SHELL, the outward part of a tent or marquée.

SHELL, a short jacket without arms, which was worn by light dragoons, and in some instances by the infantry, before the new regulations took place respecting the clothing of the British army. At the commencement of the late wars, some militia colonels derived no inconsiderable emolument from this mode of dress.

SHELL, LOADED, an invention for preserving the lives of people in danger of shipwreck.

SHELL OF A SWORD (plaque d'épée, Fr.), a particular part of a sword, which serves as a shield to the hand when it grasps the hilt. The regulation sword, which is directed to be worn in a cross belt, has its shell so constructed that one side can fall down, by which means the hilt hangs more conveniently.

A spring-shell of a sword (plaque d'épée à ressort, Fr.), a shell which by means of a spring can lie flat against the hip, when the sword is worn in a cross-belt. The proper word is coquille, not plaque.

SHELLS, in gunnery, are hollow iron balls to throw out of mortars or howitzers, with a fuse hole of about an inch diameter, to load them with powder, and to receive the fuse. The bottom, or part opposite to the fuse, is made thicker than the rest, that the fuse may fall uppermost. But in small elevations this does not always happen, nor indeed is it necessary; for, let the shell fall as it will, the fuse sets fire to the powder within, which bursts the shell, and causes great devastation. The shells had much better be of an equal thickness, for then they burst into more pieces. Mortars are thought to have been full as ancient as cannon. They were employed in the wars of Italy, to throw balls of red hot iron, stones, &c., long before the invention of shells. These last are thought to be of German invention, and the use of them in war to have been taught by the following accident:-A citizen of Venlo, at a festival celebrated in honor of the duke of Cleves, threw a number of shells, one of which fell on a house and set fire to it, by which misfortune the greatest part of the town was reduced to ashes. The first account of shells used for military purposes is in 1435, when Naples was besieged by Charles VIII. Shells were thrown out of mortars at the siege of Wachtendonk, in Guelderland, in 1588, by the earl of Mansfield. Mr. Malter, an English engineer, first taught the French the art of throwing shells, which they practised at the siege of Motte, in 1634. The method of throwing red hot balls out of mortars was first practised at the siege of Stralsund, in 1675, by the elector of Brandenburgh; though some say in 1653, at the seige of Bremen. See MORTAR.

To find the weight of a shell. Rule.-Double the difference of the cubes of the diameters of the shell and hollow sphere, and seven times the result gives the weight in pounds, cutting off the two right hand figures of whole numbers. Erample.-Let the diameter of the shell be 13 inches, and that of the hollow sphere 9.5. Then the cube of 13 is 2197, and that of 9-5, is 857-357; the difference is 1339-625; its double is 2679-25, which, multiplied by 7, gives 18754-625,

and cutting off two places, in whole numbers, the result is 187 lbs., or 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 21 lbs., the weight of the shell.

SHELLS, SHRAPNEL, or SPHERICAL CASE-SHOT, are shells of a peculiar construction, invented by colonel Shrapnel of the royal artillery. They were used with peculiar effect against the French army, which Sir Arthur Wellesley, now duke of Wellington, fought on the 21st of August, 1808; and also at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. The following explanation of the effects and advantages that might be derived by firing this species of shot is extracted from a book lately published:-

1. The whole charge takes effect on the enemy at any distance. By the present mode of firing, the greatest part of the charge disperses as soon as it leaves the muzzle of the gun, and cannot be directed.

2. Grape, or case shot, may be fired with an effect equally close and collected, to any distance within the range of the piece; and the artillery need not advance within musket shot of the enemy to make use of this kind of fire with its full effect, and are not so subject to have their guns charged either by cavalry or infantry.

3. It requires less precision and exactness to point a piece of ordnance charged with spherical case shot than with round shot, because case shot is a wide and dispersed fire, and the difficulty in elevation consequently less.

4. Its comparative destruction with that of round shot will be, generally, as the number of shot within the shells to one; that is to say, a three pounder, twenty-two to one in its favor; a six pounder, fifty to one, &c., in which calculation is not enumerated any effect from the splinters of the shell.

5. Small balls cannot be projected to very considerable distances, unless enclosed in heavy spherical cases, which, from their form and weight, are not much influenced by the resistance of the air, or diverted from their direction.

6. The explosion of the shell makes no change in the direction of the shot within it: they consequently complete the shell's track, or curve, which has sometimes been observed to be 400 yards.

7. From the unevenness of the ground, such as hillocks, banks, fallow-fields, &c., all shot which graze most commonly lodge; whereas, by using this shell, the whole charge will be carried over these irregularities, and reach the object with its full contents of balls.

N. B. Firing this kind of shells from guns is managed with more facility than the ordinary howitzer practice both as to the length of fuse, as well as the elevation required, and may be carried on in the field precisely the same as firing round shot.

Mode of examining the different natures of lieutenant colonel Shrapnel's shells in the royal laboratory.-1. The shells are to be well examined with a pick hammer of a proper weight to the diameter of each nature, to find they are not damaged by sand holes, or other flaws.

2. They are to be well scraped inside, with scrapers that will get under the dip of the fuse hole, so that all the bore, sand, or gravel may be

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