8

t' first answering to the Monotremata, the second to the Marsapdaila, and the last to the placental mammals formng the remainder of the class. The Prototheria or Ornicelphia contain the single order MONOTREMATA, which efeontains only two genera, Echidna and Ornithobus. In this division the genital and urinary ducts the rectum open into a common cloaca, and these mals, as was discovered in September, 1884, lay large es which, like those of birds, contain much food-material, in consequence undergo an incomplete segmentation. The Metatheria or Didelphia contain also but one order, MARSUPIALIA, and occupy an intermediate position in any respects between the Eutheria and the extremely low is which constitute the Prototheria. In the marsups as in the higher mammals, the aperture of the genitorinary ducts is quite distinct from that of the rectum. the other hand, no placenta is formed, the young are ern in an extremely rudimentary condition, and placed on sipples, which are concealed in a pouch of the integuatt of the abdomen. The Eutheria or Monodelphia contas the remaining members of the class, which are often Apiscental mammals, from the constant presence of panta. The subclass Eutheria may be divided into blowing orders:-EDENTATA or BRUTA (Plate, 1. 2), INSECTIVORA (fig. 3), RODENTIA (fig. 4), OFFIEOPTERA (fig. 5), UNGULATA (figs. 6, 7), PROBOSCIDEA (628. 9-11), HYRACOIDEA, SIRENIA (fig. 8), CARNIVORA (figs. 12–14), CETACEA (fig. 15), PRIMATES 1 This classification of the placental mammals, is that of Huxley, is the one in general use. Pro* Fawer enlarges the order Ungulata for the admission 4 Lamber of extinct forms recently discovered in North Areas, which, though neither typically perissodactyle ^td), nor artiodactyle (even-toed), were closely allied gulates. His order Ungulata is first divided into *aps, Ungulata rera, conterminous with the old Ungulata, and Subungulata, containing three subrs. Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, and Amblypoda, the last we contains a number of fossil forms, such as DinoUintatherium, Coryphodon, and Toxodon. The seals warases, which in Professor Huxley's classification sorder, Pinnipedia, of the Carnivora, are by some - separated from that order. The order Primates retines split up into the orders Quadrumana and the one containing all the monkeys and lemurs, the other containing man alone. The lemurs again, tre reason, are by some separated from the Primates, nuestituted a distinct order under the name Prosimiæ. 7. Menmalia are known to have reached as far back as Triassic epoch. All the remains, however, that have fand in beds of the Secondary age consist of portions the lower jaw or of teeth, so that the determination of - matenatic position of these fossil mammals is attended *exsiderable difficulty. The oldest known mammalian 11s are some teeth found in the Rhætic beds of Gery and England, and described under the name of eres antiquus. The animal to which they belonged to have been a very small carnivorous mammal, 4ther it was marsupial or placental is impossible to I North America, Triassic mammals are represented 1rtans of the lower jaw bearing teeth, described under Dromatherium. The next traces of mammals a the Stonesfield slates (Oxfordshire), which belong * Qulites. Amphitherium is founded on several f the lower jaw bearing teeth, and is considered by to be most nearly allied to the marsupial Myrmecobius. remains from the same strata constitute the genera antes, Phascolotherium, and Stereognathus, the first dfwch were probably marsupial, while the affinities last cannot be determined with any certainty. Toanator close of the Oolitic period in the Middle Purbeck Da Lumber of remains referable to small mammals

MAMMILLATED.

have been found, all of which are probably marsupial. Among these are Plagiaulax, Spalacotherium, Triconodon. Throughout the successive formations of the Tertiary period mammals are found, both marsupial and placental. The Eocene formations, especially in North America, have yielded a number of forms presenting the characters of ungulates of a somewhat generalized type, and sometimes seeming to connect several orders which at the present day are sharply defined. In the full typical dentition, in the character of the molar teeth, and in the five-toed feet these ungulates recall the forms from which the present perissodactyles and artiodactyles must have descended. In the case of the horse the ancestry can be clearly traced by successive steps back to the Lower Eocene cohippus, a little animal with four toes and a rudimentary pollex on the fore feet and three toes on the hind feet. Another feature of interest in connection with these primitive ungulates is the extremely small development of the brain, as shown by the size of the brain-case. The brain of the dinoceras, according to Professor Marsh, was proportionately smaller than in any other known mammal, recent or fossil, and even less than in some reptiles.

(Huxley, "Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals; " Owen, Anatomy of Vertebrates- Mammals Gegenbaur, "Comparative Anatomy;" Flower, "Osteology of the Mammalia.")

MAM MARY GLAND is an organ of considerable interest, from its occurring only in that important class of animals to which it gives its name [MAMMALIA], and whose greatest peculiarity is that, while young, their food is the milk secreted by the mammary glands of their mother. The number of mammary glands varies in different animals, but their position is always upon the ventral surface. In whales they are placed upon the groin, and are two in number. All mammae are composed of ramified ducts which open on the surface of a nipple or teat by a very minute orifice. In some animals, as ruminants, there is but one orifice at the extremity of each nipple; in others, and in man, there are several. Each orifice leads into a fine canal, which, however, soon dilates and ramities with irregular and tortuous branches in the substance of the breast or udder. Each branch has either a simple closed extremity or terminates in a minute cellule, and numerous capillary bloodvessels ramify on their walls and secrete the milk into them. When the mouth of the young animal, by the action of sucking, produces a partial vacuum over the nipple, the weight of the surrounding medium presses lightly and equally upon the surface of the breast or udder, and propels the milk from the ducts in minute and gentle

streams.

At the commencement of pregnancy the mammary gland, which up to the period of puberty had been but little developed, enlarges; its increase of size keeps pace with the progress of gestation, and before its termination a thin serous milky fluid begins to be secreted. Directly after parturition the quantity of milk increases, and it becomes more thick and rich, combining in itself all the best principles for the nourishment of the young animal. It continues to flow for a length of time, proportioned to the age at which the young animal can seek its own food, and then, gradually subsiding, the gland decreases to the same size which it had before pregnancy. In males of all species only a rudiment of this organ is found; yet there are not wanting instances in which milk has been secreted from the breasts of men and other male animals.

MAM MILLATED is a term used in mineralogy to describe the rounded and spheroidal forms which minerals sometimes assume; they are usually formed of aggregations of small crystals, and often have an internal radiated fibrous structure, the external surface presenting segments of spheres which intersect one another, and thus produce this peculiar appearance.

MAMMON.

MAM'MON, god of this world. It is a Syriac word for riches, occurring in the Syriac version of St. Matthew's Gospel.

MAMMOTH (Elephas primigenius) is an extinct species of ELEPHANT closely related to the Asiatic living species, Elephas indicus. The mammoth ranged over nearly the whole of the northern hemisphere in Pleistocene times, being contemporaneous with man. The mammoth was a colossal unwieldy animal, the skeleton measuring over 16 feet long, exclusive of the tusks, and 9 feet in height. The tusks were probably present in both male and female, those of the former measuring on the average 9 feet long, and those of the latter 5. The tusks are boldly curved, sometimes even describing a circle. The body was covered with a dense shaggy coat of reddishbrown wool, some 9 or 10 inches long, very soft and thick; interspersed among and protecting this under woolly hair were long coarse hairs of a deep brown colour and more than a foot long. Along the neck and back ran a thick heavy mane. The whole body was cumbrous, and the legs were shorter and the mouth and trunk larger than in the

case of the Indian elephant. The molar teeth resemble most closely those of the Indian species; but they are broader, and have narrower and more numerous and closely set transverse plates and ridges, whose edges are not festooned.

The structure and appearance of no other extinct animal is known with such certainty as that of the mammoth. Bones are found in enormous numbers in the river deposits of Middle and Northern Europe, and of North America. In Britain it is abundant in river-deposits and caverns, and there is evidence to show that it existed in this country before, during, and after the Glacial Period. [See ICE AGE.] In Europe it extended as far south as Spain, and as far north as Northern Germany, and also occurs in the auriferous gravels of the Urals. In Siberia the mammoths must have existed in countless herds. Entire carcases have been found buried in the frozen morasses. In 1799 a Tungusian fisherman discovered, near the mouth of the river Lena, a huge mammoth imbedded in clear ice. Fer several years his fear overcame his love of gain; but at length, when the ice had partially melted, he chopped cf

the tusks. The body of the monster thus left exposed was quickly mangled by bears and wolves; but two years after, when a Russian naturalist visited it, he found the skeleton intact with the exception of the fore-foot, ligaments still holding parts of the skeleton together, portions of the skin of the head, and the brain uninjured within the skull. Since then the mammoth has been met with in this wonderful manner several times. In the exceptionally warm season of 1846, on the banks of the Indigirka, a young Russian engineer, Lieutenant Benkendorf, had the remarkably good fortune to see a huge mammoth, complete as on the day of its death thousands of years ago, which had burst the bonds of its burial-place owing to the thawing of the tundra to an unusual depth. The examination of the stomach revealed the fact that this animal had fed on the shoots of firs and pines. In Siberia the fossil tusks are found in so perfect a state that they are regularly exported as ivory both to Europe and China.

There can be no doubt that the mammoth was a con

temporary of prehistoric man, by whom it was doubtless hunted. In the cave of La Madelaine, in Auvergne, wis found a piece of ivory on which is a spirited engraving f the mammoth.

(W. Boyd Dawkins "On the Range of the Mammoth in Space and Time," Quarterly Journal of Geological Socie xxxv. p. 138; H. H. Howorth, Geological Magazine r 1880 and 1881:-"The Mammoth in Siberia," "The Mammoth in Europe," "Extinction of the Mammoth.") MAMMOTH CAVE. See KENTUCKY.

MAN constitutes the sole specific example of the only genus, Homo, contained in Cuvier's order Biman Zoologists in general have now returned to the views Linnæus, and class Homo in the order Primates (or Simia of which he forms a family or suborder.

The anatomy and physiology of man are treated of under their appropriate heads in this work. The present article is limited to the consideration of man as a zoological species.

MAN.

In man the attitude is erect. The skull is nearly balanced upon the vertebral column, which has a double curvature, the curves being so arranged that when the body is in the erect posture a vertical line drawn from its samit would fall exactly on the centre of its base. The naturally erect position of man requires an expansion of the es sacrum and haunch bones for the lodgment of werful muscles; and the strength and size of the lower Limbs are such as not only to support with ease the weight of the body, but also to insure firm, easy, and graceful progression. The foot is broad, and the whole sole is aped to the ground; the leg bears vertically upon it; the beel is tumid beneath; the toes are short, the first far exceding the rest in size, placed on the same line as the stiers, and not opposable to them. Nevertheless the nonpposable character of the great toe (or hallux) is to some extent the result of civilization.

The lower limbs of man being the exclusive organs of kecmotion, at least on the ground, his anterior extremities are free and shorter than the legs, the reverse being the ase in the anthropoid apes; during growth the disproporbut is increased. The arms are well developed and muscar; the humerus rotates freely in the shallow articulating arity of the scapula; the shoulders are kept wide apart by means of well-developed clavicles; the forearm is pable of pronation and supination, and the hand is at Be an organ of touch and prehension; the thumb is cpsable to the fingers, which are of unequal length, fr the sake of insuring easier manipulation and greater is man the chest is large and expanded; it is flattened in front, and has greater dimensions transversely than in $; the sternum is short and broad; the ribs are. on ade, seven true and five false, total twelve. The eth are of equal length and approximating together, with

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1 1 ; pm. 1-1 Te canines are short, so that there is no diastema or in the teeth; in this unbroken series Anoplotherium, stinct artiodactyle ungulate, alone of all existing or at mammals, agrees with man. The premolars have casps, the molars four blunt cusps. The maxillary Liz man is smaller than in apes, and tends to a semiar form. The skin is sparsely covered with hair, Es chiefly developed on the crown of the head and 7 particular regions. The only two muscles which are din man, and have not been found in any ape, are ted with the peculiar development of hand and they are the extensor primi internodi pollicis and the peronaus tertius.

Food-fruits, grain, roots, and animal flesh; as a general the diet of man is prepared by cooking for the stomach. heller regions oleaginous animal food is preferred; **atal farinaceous food in the hotter climates; and vari

the degrees between these two extremes, according tude and national predilections.

wth, slow; infancy, long; maturity acquired at a arately late period.

I nervous system is highly developed; the brain is .with the cerebral hemispheres greatly preponderating Ach convoluted. The mass of the brain is voluem proportion to the size of the nerves communiwith it. In consequence of the volume of the brain, teamtude of the cranial portion greatly preponderates eth facial. Man has no projecting snout; the face is na plane with the rising forehead, and therefore al Lot anterior to the brain; this position is pecu- characteristic of man. for the crania of the chimpanzee tang, which approach nearest to that of man, are gether posterior to and not above the face.

With regard to the quæstio vexata of the difference between man and the higher apes, with its bearing on "man's place in nature," the following quotation from a distinguished German zoologist, Professor Claus, may be added to what has already been said in the article ANTHROPOLOGY:-"The most important anatomical differences between man and the apes depend upon the configuration of the skull and the face, the structure of the brain, the dentition and the formation of the extremities, the arrangement of which, in connection with certain peculiarities of the vertebral column, permit of the upright posture of the body in walking. The rounded arched form of the spacious cranial capsule, the considerable preponderance of the skull over the face, which is not placed in front of the skull as in the anthropoid apes and in other animals, but almost at right angles beneath it, are essential human characters, as are the relatively large mass of the brain, the great size of the anterior and posterior lobes, and, finally, the great development of the cerebral convolutions, which, however, in the apes are arranged on the same type. All these peculiarities, which are of the greatest importance for the intellectual development of man, cannot be regarded as fundamental distinctions, but must rather be ascribed to gradual deviations, since there are still greater differences between the highest and lowest apes. Efforts have been vainly made to show that certain parts, which are always present in apes and other mammals, are absent in man (præmaxilla, Blumenbach, Goethe); and the attempts to prove the converse of this, viz. that there are parts of fundamental value in the human organism (pes hippocampi minor, Owen, Huxley) which are found in no other mammal, have as completely failed. Further, the completely continuous row of teeth, interrupted by no gap for the opposed canines, a character by which the human dentition is distinguished from that of the Catarrhina, is not an exclusive human character, but is known in a fossil ungulate (Anoplotherium); while on the other hand similar gaps have been observed, certainly only in exceptional cases (Kaffir skull in the Erlangen collection), in the human dentition. The prominent chin of man has indeed the value of a characteristic feature, although even this is less conspicuous in the negroes; nevertheless it is obvious that this feature cannot be regarded as a character of fundamental importance." (Claus' “Textbook of Zoology,” translated and edited by A. Sedgwick, London, 1885.)

Man is the only animal endowed with the gift of language, as distinguished from mere sounds instinctively uttered, and expressive of feelings or desires. Man is a true cosmopolite; he inhabits the dreary regions of the polar circle, the temperate latitudes, and the glowing countries of the tropics. He subsists with equal facility under various degrees of atmospheric pressure; the valleys and also the elevated table-lands of South America, some of which are 10,000 feet high, are alike inhabited by man

the barometer standing in the one at 30, and in the other at only 20 inches. Condamine and Bouguer with their attendants lived for three weeks at a height of 14,600 French feet above the level of the sea, where the barometer stood at only 153 inches, the atmospheric pressure being therefore only a little more than half of that to which they had been accustomed.

Considerable differences occur in the average stature of different races. The Bushmen, for example, of Southern Africa are mere pigmies, the Kaffirs of the same country are tall and athletic; the Esquimaux are stunted, the Patagonians are often 7 feet in height. In all countries individuals are to be found, some far below the average standard, some far exceeding it; but these are examples of accidental departure from it. In temperate climates the average stature of the male varies from 5 feet 6 inches

to 6 feet.

The great race of man is divided into a vast number of

MAN, ISLE OF.

families or varieties, distinguished from each other by physiognomy and slight structural details, by colour, by the characters of the hair, by language, by habits, manners, and customs, and by degrees of civilization. Like other mammals, man is subject to albinism, an affection which attacks him perhaps most frequently in hot climates. Albinoes are distinguished by the total absence of the colouring matter of the cuticle, hair, and eyes-hence their skin is of a milk-white or pinkish hue; the hair silky, white, or at most yellowish; the iris rosy, and the pupil red. See ANTHROPOLOGY.

MAN, ISLE OF, is an island belonging to the crown of England, situated between 54° 2′ and 54° 25′ N. lat., and 4° 17′ and 4° 50′ W. lon. Placed in the middle of the St. George's Channel, it is within easy reach of the various countries of the United Kingdom, the distance from the Point of Ayre to Burrow Head, N.N.E., being 16 miles; from Peel to Lough Strangford in Ireland, N.W. by W., 27 miles; from Manghold Head to Whitehaven, E. N., 31 miles; from the Calf of Man to Ardglass, in Ireland, N. W. N., 31 miles; and from the Calf of Man to Holyhead, S.S.W., 45 miles. The length of the island in the direction N.E. by N. and S.W. by S., from the Point of Ayre to the Sound of the Calf, is 33 miles. The greatest breadth is from Bank's Howe, near Douglas, to Ballanayre, to the north of Peel, 12 miles. Its circumference is about 75 miles. The area is estimated to be about 145,000 The population of the island at the census of 1881 was 53,492.

acres.

Approaching the island from the west by Douglas Bay the whole outline of the coast, with its variations of light and shade, its green hills, its dark cliffs, and its rocky headlands, presents a scene of surpassing grandeur. The first object that strikes the eye is Maughold Head, a bold promontory, forming the north-eastern point of the island, and which seems to start up suddenly from the water's edge; while behind it, the summits of Snaefell, 2024 feet in height, and North Barule, 1842 feet, the two highest mountains on the island, rise gradually into view. Towards the north the coast is bold and precipitous, with lofty cliffs that dip sheer down into the water, divided here and there by deep gullies, through which the mountain streams, often rich in trout, find their way to the sea. Southwards the highlands shelve gradually down, till at Castletown, the ancient capital of the island, and still retaining the nominal distinction of being the metropolis, though the seat of government has been virtually transferred to Douglas, the land is quite flat. From this point the land rises again, till its rugged coast-line terminates in the Calf, a rocky island some 5 miles in circumference, but containing very little cultivated ground. It is, in fact, a mere pile of lofty crags, some 500 feet high, inhabited by rabbits and sea-fowl. The Sound which separates the Calf from Spanish Head on the mainland is full of dangerous currents; and the iron-bound coast in this neighbourhood has been the scene of many a terrible wreck.

Spanish Head is the grandest of all the majestic and precipitous headlands of the island. It rises straight out of the sea to a height of more than 300 feet, pierced by numerous chasms, which bear evident traces of a volcanic origin. It derives its name from the fact that several of the ships of the Spanish Armada were dashed to pieces there in the awful storm which proved England's best ally. At the southern extremity of the Calf are two remarkable rocks, called the Burrow and the Eye. They rise to a height of 100 feet above the sea; both are pierced with natural archways, and one of them, the Eye, is perfectly insulated.

Inland a range of mountains extends from north-east to south-west, affording extensive views of the beautiful and varied scenery of the island, and which have been rendered more accessible by the construction of several

MAN, ISLE OF.

good roads. Trees are not plentiful; but the green LT's which bound the valleys on either side attract the eye of the pedestrian by their variations of shade and colour, and the picturesque form of their outlines. On a clear day the view from Snaefell is grand in the extreme, and England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales are distinctly visible. Of the ten principal rivers in the island, the largest is the Sulby; there are also numberless brooks and rivulets. It is this plenitude of water which gives such refreshing variety to the scenery of the Isle of Man.

Lead, zinc, iron, and copper are found in various parts, and there is no question but that its mineral wealth is very great. The oldest mines in the island are those at Laxey, Foxdale, and Bradda. In modern times a great improvement has taken place in agriculture; the productive character of the soil has been developed; and the exports of grain, green crops, and cattle (more particularly the latter) have increased enormously. Lime is readily obtained from the beds of carboniferous limestone in the neighbourhood of Castletown and Port St. Mary, and after almost every storm thousands of tons of seaweed are carted off the coasts and used as manure. The fisheries, though no longer the sole industry of the island, as in former times, if piracy and smuggling be excluded, still afford employment to a large proportion of the inhabitants. The number of Manx fishing boats, decked and undecked, is upwards of 600, employing about 3800 men and boys, and 3,600,000 square yards of netting. The herring is the chief source of revenue, and Port St. Mary, as well as Peel, on the western shore of the island, has a large share of the fishery; its inhabitants own about eighty fishing-smacks, manned by 600 men and boys. The number belonging to Peel is more than twice as great; but the Cornish and Irish fishing-boats, which are, together, far more numerous than all those of the Manxmen, are wont to assemble at Port St. Mary. The Manx fishermen and peasants are good, honest, sober, and quiet folk, much like those of the Hebrides and the western and northern coasts of Scotland.

The island has many antiquities, old customs, and places of historical interest. At St. John's, about 3 miles on the Douglas side of Peel, is Tynwald Hill, an artificial moutd some 80 feet in diameter, and about 12 feet in height. Here, on the 5th of July each year, are promulgated all the laws that have been passed by the Manx Parliament during the preceding year. The ceremony is made the occasion of a great meeting of the people, and the chief authori ties attend divine service in the chapel of St. John. This custom is said to date back more than 1000 years. Peel Castle, so familiar to the readers of Sir Walter Scott's "Peveril of the Peak," for the last 100 years has been nothing more than a beautiful ruin. Two of the chapes mentioned by Waldron still remain, dedicated respectively to St. German and St. Patrick. The former, indeed, is still the cathedral of the diocese of Sodor and Man; for although it has long been in a dilapidated condition, it has never yet been replaced by another, and open-air services are held among the ruins during the summer months. The ruins stand some 50 yards from the land, on a rugged island, which is in reality the spur of a ridge of rocky hil's gradually shelving down to the shore.

The early history of the Isle of Man is rather obscure, but there is not much doubt that the people are of Celtic origin, the Manx language having strong affinities with the Irish and the Gaelic of the Highlands. A Manx tradition states that in the beginning of the tenth century Orry the Dane arrived with a strong fleet, and landed in the north of the island. The people, maddened by the tyrannical acts of their king (Thorstein), were glad to receive such a powerful leader as Orry, and they at once placed themselves under him. It is stated that when Orry landed he was asked whence he came. Upon this he pointed to the Milky Way in the Leavens, and said,